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William Mortensen 


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DUTDDDR PORTRAITURE 

Problems of Face and Figure 
In Natural Environment 


by 

WILLIAM MORTENSEN 


CAMERA CRAFT PUBLISHING COMPANY 
376 Sutter Street San Francisco, 8, Calif. 


( Rsis" 

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Copyright 1947 


Camera Craft Publishing Company 


San Francisco 


Other Books by 

WILLIAM MORTENSEN 


New Projection Control 
Flash in Modern Photography 
Monsters and Madonnas 
The Command To Look 
The Model 
Print Finishing 
Pictorial Lighting 


First Edition, June 1940 
Second Printing, February 1943 
Third Printing, September 1945 
Fourth Printing, January 1947 


Printed in the United States of America 
by^THE Mercury Press, San Francisco 


mmm 


\ 



FEB 1 1 1947 ©ciA 



COPYRIGHT flBMBP 



CONTENTS 


Foreword 

Introduction.8 

Outdoor portraiture is usually the amateur’s first undertaking and the source 
of his first disappointment. Definition of outdoor portraiture: psychological, 
pictorial and decorative uses of the human element. Reasons for emphasis on 
“do nots” rather than “dos.” Unorganized numerousness of nature demands 
the negative approach. Two methods of dealing with foreign elements in a 
picture. Sentiment often stands in the way of candid self-criticism. 

Chapter One —Equipment for Outdoor Portraiture .... 16 

Considerations governing selection of camera. The matter of focal length. 
Advantages of short focal length. Camera size. Advantages of minicam for 
outdoor portraiture. Influence of camera size on depth of field. Tripod speci¬ 
fications. Accessories. Light meter an optional item. Construction of folding 
reflector. Choice of film. Equipment for location trips. 

Chapter Two —The General Problems of Outdoor Portraiture . 28 

A sample of amateur procedure. The results as shown in four characteristic 
pictures. Criticism of these pictures. The four general sources of error in 
outdoor portraiture: camera manipulation, lighting, backgrounds, arrange¬ 
ment of material. 

Chapter Three —Handling the Camera .33 

Mistakes in camera manipulation are a common source of spoiled pictures. 
Double exposure. Dirty lens. Inaccurate focus. Lack of depth of field. Mean¬ 
ing and use of “hyper-focal distance.” Rules for focusing. Bad framing. 
Camera not level. Camera movement. Bad camera angle. Light in the 
lens. The matter of exposure. Restrictions in use of previously recommended 
system of exposure and development. The use of the light meter. The P&H 
Process: a promising innovation in photographic procedure. Its application 
to outdoor portraiture. Description and criticism of P&H procedure. 


V; * 


5 





Introduction 


Outdoor portraiture is in most cases the first problem that the 
average amateur tackles. It seems like a simple matter. He has his 
camera, and has learned how to load it and what buttons to push. 
The sun provides large amounts of inexpensive illumination. For 
subjects, friends and family are readily available. For setting, there 
is the garden or the front steps. Very simple: just get all these items 
together—and there you are. So our amateur leads his wife, little 
sister or grandmother out into the sunlight and pots away. 

What does he get? Probably something very much like Figure 
1. He is vaguely disappointed because he rather fancied a result 
more along the lines of Figure 2 or something he had seen in last 
week’s Life. But, as it bears a sufficiently close resemblance to the 
wife (or little sister or grandmother) to satisfy him, he goes on 
making variants of Figure 1. However, there eventually comes a 
time when he sees the shortcomings of his work and desires to 
make a really pleasing and effective presentation of his material. 
This book endeavors to help him to do that thing. 

And he really needs the help. For outdoor portraiture, although 
it is usually one of the first projects undertaken by the hopeful 
amateur, is really one of the most difficult of pictorial problems. 
But it is a problem worth the trouble: a good outdoor portrait has 
a directness and sincerity that is rarely achieved in the studio 
product. It is an excellent field for photographic training for the 


8 


amateur who goes about it correctly. To one who has really mastered 
the technical difficulties involved in outdoor portraiture, the con¬ 
trolled conditions in the studio will seem like child’s play. 

Definition 

Let us take note beforehand as to what we mean by our title, 
“Outdoor Portraiture.” The word “portraiture” shows that we are 
principally concerned with the presentation of personality . Person¬ 
ality, of course, is most conventionally revealed in terms of facial 
lineaments. So, in this book, we will give most of our time to con¬ 
sideration of the problems of representing the human face in an 
outdoor setting. 

However, the outdoor setting offers many opportunities for the 
pictorial rather than psychological use of the human element. There 
are many who are more interested in pictures than in mere person¬ 
ality. For these, the use of the human element—as indicated in our 
sub-title—involves the presentation of the figure, clothed or nude, 
in an outdoor setting. Special problems concerning the full figure, 
therefore, are included. 

Finally, there are some to whom the human figure is most inter¬ 
esting pictorially when used merely as a decorative factor in a land¬ 
scape. Properly speaking, this treatment of the human element 
entirely removes it from the field of portraiture. But, since it is 
still concerned with the human element in a natural setting, this 
problem is also given brief consideration.* 

The Negative Approach 

In approaching the problems of outdoor portraiture, we will find 
that the best and most useful advice stresses the “do nots” rather 
than the “dos.” Therefore, in this book I will follow the general 
scheme adopted in my earlier work, The Model,** and will devote 
considerable space to identifying and analyzing the various errors 
that we fall into and the mistakes that trip us up when we first try 
to make portraits out of doors. 


* Chapter Six. 

** Camera Craft Puh. Co., $3.00. 


9 




Figure 1. 

The beginner gets this . . . 


Until these errors are understood and cleared up, little useful 
advice or instruction of a positive kind can be offered. Indeed, in 
the arts, most instruction is necessarily negative. The pupil must 
find his own individual way: the teacher can only warn him what 
not to do. In the pictorial arts, in particular, the way to salvation 
is through elimination. The trouble with many an amateur’s pictures 
is not so much with the things that he has put into them as the 
things that he has failed to leave out. This is the particular curse 
of the photographer, of course. The poet has mentioned that “the 
world is full of a number of things,” and has cited this fact as a 
particular reason for rejoicing. But the photographer frequently 
has cause to deprecate the excessive numerousness of things in the 
world. Pictorially speaking, the world is full of unnecessary ex¬ 
crescences. We can see in a single casual glance a number of things 


10 




that it would take us half an hour to enumerate. Lift your eyes from 
this page and note the huge number of separate items that you see. 
There is quite probably a picture (or even several pictures) in what 
you see, hut hopelessly cluttered by unorganized numerousness. Only 
by intelligent elimination can we get down to the basic picture 
material. 

Note that I say “intelligent elimination ” Obviously, it is possible 
to carry elimination to a point where it begins to encroach on your 
picture. The average amateur shot may be likened (let us say) to 
a recipe for a perfect apple pie, to which there has been added, 
casually and accidentally, a handful of carpet tacks, a pound of 
hamburger and a dash of hydroquinone. Now, carpet tacks, ham¬ 
burger and hydroquinone are all very admirable and useful in their 
respective fields; but they are quite incongruous and extraneous to 
apple pie. Only by elimination of these foreign ingredients can we 


11 


produce the perfect pie. But, in our passion for elimination it is 
conceivable that we might be led into recklessly doing away with 
the shortening and nutmeg, which are essential elements in the 
original recipe. And, from that point, we might even try eliminating 
the apples as well. So, we must not only eliminate, but must know 
what to eliminate and how far to proceed with the elimination. 

Two Methods 

When, in the set-up for a picture, we are confronted with items 
that are foreign to the picture, there are two possible ways of dealing 
with them. We can either: 

(1) Eliminate them, or 

(2) Use them (by fitting them into the picture). 

Under no condition should we merely tolerate them. This lazy tol¬ 
eration of things that we (in our honest moments) realize should 
not be in the picture, is a very prevalent photographic philosophy, 
and is the principal reason that there are so many bad pictures in 
the world. 

The second method mentioned above, that of coping with items 
foreign to the picture by adapting them to the pictorial scheme, has 
very frequent application in outdoor portraiture. Out of doors, the 
various pictorial factors are, of course, not subject to such immediate 
physical control as they are in the studio. Consequently, numerous 
compromises must be resorted to. It should be noted that adapting 
a recalcitrant item to pictorial use is logically equivalent to elimi¬ 
nating it, for when it is fitted into the pictorial scheme it forthwith 
ceases to be foreign and extraneous. 

Possibly, lest there be any misunderstanding, it is well to men¬ 
tion that no direct or drastic physical action is necessarily implied 
by the word “eliminate.” A telephone pole, for example, may be a 
very disturbing element in the set-up for an outdoor portrait. But 
we do not take an axe to the pole. Instead, we take a step to the 
right or left—and thereby eliminate the pole as far as the picture 
is concerned. Note how the desert, and the whole town of Palm 
Springs, are “eliminated” in Figures 3 and 4. 


12 



Figure 3. Figure 4. 

Excessive numerousness of ... “e/iminatecT’ by shift in angle, 

excrescences . . . 


Sentiment and Criticism 

Outdoor portraiture, we have seen, is in many cases the first 
pictorial problem that the amateur attempts. And, in most of these 
cases, it turns out badly. This is not due, as a rule, to any lack of 
honest effort on the amateur’s part. Usually the subject of these 
abhortive efforts at portraiture is someone of personal sentimental 
concern to the would-be pictorialist—a child, a mother or girl friend. 
So he puts forth his best efforts, but he doesn’t know enough to do 
his subject justice. 

Unfortunately, this very sentimental interest in the subject is 
apt to keep him from appreciating how bad his results really are. 
Tillie is a wonderful girl, and anything that reminds him of her, 
even remotely, is wonderful also. 

Eventually the time comes, however, when he tumbles to the 
fact that he has not been doing right by Tillie. And when that hor- 


13 


rifying moment of self-appraisal comes, he stands in great need of 
some systematic basis of self-criticism to straighten him out. And 
that basis of self-criticism is precisely what this book endeavors to 
supply, in order that the amateur may be enabled to give a worthy 
pictorial rendering of the persons and things that he cares most 
about. 

So long as there are cameras and people to use them on, we shall 
undoubtedly have records of Sister (age three months) in her bath, 
Junior on his first bicycle, Father and Mother and Towser on the 
front steps, Grandma on her eightieth birthday, the backyard of the 
old house and the front yard of the new one, the family in the 
mountains, the family at the beach, and so on and so on—each one 
a tiny morsel snatched from the jaws of devouring time. 

Accidental in their conception and casual in their arrangement 
though they are, there is no reason why such records should not be 
given more effective pictorial presentation. Those precious moments 
that we clutch at while existence races past us are certainly deserving 
of the best possible setting that we can give them. This in no wise 
detracts from their value as records, but definitely enhances it. A 
photograph to which some care has been given to make it a good 
picture as well as a record preserves, much more truly than the 
casual snapshot, the vital essence of that moment or event which 
made it worth saving. All too often the snapshot conceals or distorts 
the real meaning of the moment that it preserves from oblivion. 
The snapshots of Sister (age three months) in her bath may he 
amusing, hut they have been known to become tragically embarras¬ 
sing to Sister when, seventeen years later, they fell into the hands 
of her boy friend. Telephone poles encroach on the beautiful pros¬ 
pect: it was not the telephone poles that endeared the view to us, 
but there they are, as large as life and a great deal more conspicuous. 
Nor did this young lady once fill us with ineffable thrills and strange 
longings because she squinted when she looked at the sun and was 
apparently dislocated at one hip; yet these are the facts that the 
snapshot seems to have recorded. 

Fundamental is the human longing to perpetuate moments that 


14 


have pleased us. All things are fleeting in this world: existence slips 
from under our feet, day by day the face of the world alters, and 
yesterday’s infant is today graduating from college. No wonder we 
are all possessed with this insatiable desire to grasp a few grains of 
solid reality amid this elusive flow. It is a pathetic but definite 
protest against the immutable law of change. 

More clearly than anything else, pictorial records of events and 
persons seem to halt for a moment the relentless ravages of time. 
Just for an instant, as we look at an old picture, the irrevocable 
years exist again, and today and that day are one. 


15. 


Chapter One 


Equipment for Outdoor Portraiture 


For just any sort of result in outdoor portraiture, of course any 
sort of equipment will do. But, if one wishes to do really good work, 
certain standards in equipment must be complied with. The required 
equipment is not necessarily expensive, but it must be wisely selected 
and adapted to its job. 

Camera 

One should not undertake serious work in outdoor portraiture 
with a box-type or rigid, fixed-focus camera. This type does not 
provide for sufficient variation in shutter speed or diaphragm set¬ 
ting. Nor is it possible, with this sort of camera, to come sufficiently 
close to the subject to secure a dominating portrait head. 

It is true that there are available, for cameras of this type, por¬ 
trait attachments that make it possible to work closer to the model. 
But these attachments are open to serious objections. In the first 
place, focus is very critical, making it impossible to secure the depth 
of field demanded of good outdoor portraits. Secondly, even within 
the shallow plane of focus, the definition is not of the best. The 
direct, sincere quality of sunlight and the out-of-doors demands 
sharp focus and clean definition. 


16 


The essential attributes of a good camera for this purpose may 
be briefly summed up: 

1. The lens should be of reasonably short focal length. This 
means about a fifty millimeter lens for 35 mm. cameras, 
a five inch lens for 2^x3% anc ^ a six or seven inch lens 
for 

2. The focusing adjustment must he such that it will permit 
the camera being brought in so close to the subject that 
a head will fill the picture space. 

3. The shutter speeds must range at least from a twenty-fifth 
of a second to a hundredth. There also should be a setting 
for “bulb” exposures. 

4. There must be an iris type diaphragm with a range of 
apertures at least as wide as f:4.5 to fill or f:16. 

5. The camera must he equipped with a screw plate for 
attaching to a tripod. 

The Matter of Focal Length 

From the very early days of photography the superstition has 
prevailed that the only proper lens for portraiture was one of long 
focal length. Those readers who are past a certain age will no doubt 
remember, among the more vivid episodes of their childhood, their 
experience in a portrait studio—the photographer hiding his head 
ostrich-like, the camera huge and hulking as a beer truck, and the 
lens on front of it that transfixed them with its unwinking malific 
glare. Very probably this lens was a Verito of at least fourteen 
inches focal length. For in those days a portrait photographer with¬ 
out a long focal length lens was unthinkable. To take a portrait with 
a short focal length lens—well, it simply wasn’t done. For a por¬ 
traitist to function without a lens of fourteen inch, sixteen inch, or 
twenty inch focal length (if he wanted to do the thing up properly) 
would not merely have been unprecedented—it would have been 
a grave social error. 

Nowadays, although photographers are gradually adopting equip¬ 
ment of less heroic dimensions, the impression still persists that a 


17 



Figure 5 . 

Bad effect of lens of short focal 
length due to bad arrangement 
of material. 


portrait (even an outdoor portrait) demands the use of long focal 
length. Many amateurs earnestly believe that a long focal length 
lens produces truer drawing and truer perspective than one of short 
focal length. This is, of course, entirely false. A lens can no more 
change perspective than it can see around a corner. Set up a tripod 
in front of the facade of a building or of a human countenance, 
and attach to the tripod in succession a camera with a pinhole, a 
short focal length lens, and a long focal length lens, and finally look 
at the object from the same viewpoint, and all three cameras will 
record the object in exactly the same drawing and perspective as 
your eye sees it. The only difference will he in the size of the image. 
The lens of long focal length, in opera-glass fashion, moves a distant 
object into a nearer plane of vision. This operation of bringing an 
object seen twenty feet away up into the very front plane of vision 
is what the advocates of long focal length humorously call “correct¬ 
ing the perspective.” 


18 



Figure 6. 

Correction achieved by slight 
readjustment of material. Same 
lens as Figure 5. 



It is when an amateur, seeking to get a larger image, recklessly 
and inexpertly moves up on liis subject that unpleasant perspectives 
are obtained with short focal lengths. Only by unexpert handling, 
or by malice aforethought, is it possible to obtain such monstrosities 
as we have all seen exhibited as though they were typical products 
of this sort of lens. Feet projected toward the camera so that the rest 
of the body is barely visible, an automobile photographed head-on 
so that it is Cadillac in front and Austin behind, a sclinozzle that 
looms from the face like the Matterhorn—such things are not the 
fault of the lens, hut of the arrangement of the material. 

It is not perspectives that need correcting, hut arrangements, 
and sometimes also the artistic ideals of the photographer. If he is 
guided by good sense and an appreciation of the limitations of his 
medium, he will not go astray. Compare Figures 5 and 6. Certainly 
in Figure 5 the nose juts out in a very arrogant and displeasing 
manner (although there is no actual “distortion,” and your eye 


19 


would have seen the same thing—had it been in the same place 
that the lens was). Note, in Figure 6, the improvement affected by 
a very slight readjustment of the subject. Both pictures were made 
by the same lens. 

For large character heads that are to give a “face-to-face” im¬ 
pression, the short focal length is absolutely logical. A person would 
naturally he met and talked to at about the camera distance of the 
short focal length lens. 

Camera Size 

What size of camera? Provided it can fulfill the above qualifi¬ 
cations, any size or type, from 35 mm. on up, can he successfully 
employed for outdoor portraiture. 

However, for a number of reasons, the 35 mm. miniature type 
of camera, comes nearest to being the ideal instrument for this pur¬ 
pose. Among the special advantages of the minicam, we may men¬ 
tion the following: 

1. Extreme portability. Those who specialize in outdoor 
portraiture often go far afield in their search for “loca¬ 
tions.” Compact equipment is an obvious advantage if 
one is scrambling through sage-brush or crawling over 
boulders. 

2. Speed of operation. Miniature equipment not only may 
be set up quickly, but a large number of exposures may 
be taken in a short time. This is of great advantage out¬ 
doors when one must cope with rapidly changing light 
conditions. 

3. Many exposures in a single roll. 

4. Economical operation. If you load your own magazines, 
the cost of film runs less than a cent per exposure. In 
outdoor portraiture the film casualty is apt to be high, 
and a saving in film price is a very real consideration. 

5. Depth of field. This is a particularly outstanding charac¬ 
teristic of the miniature camera, and is an absolute re¬ 
quirement of good outdoor portraiture. 

* The majority of the illustrations in this book were made from miniature negatives. 


20 



Of these five advantages, the final one is most important in 
qualifying the miniature camera for this type of work. 

The conditions imposed by the size of the camera, rather than 
the actual focal length of the lens are the determining factor in 
deciding the depth of field. Imagine the following situation: Three 
cameras are set up in a row, equi-distant from the subject. Camera A 
is a 35 mm. miniature, camera B is 3^x4^4, camera C is 8x10. But 
they are all equipped with identical 135 mm. lenses. For the mini¬ 
ature, 135 mm. would rate as a very long focal length; for the 
3^x4^4, 135 mm. would be about normal; and, for the 8x10, 135 
mm. would be extremely short. 

Let us further assume that all these lenses are set at the same 
aperture: let us say F:8. We would have, therefore, on the three 
plates, three images identical in size and depth of field. 

Making one more assumption, let us suppose that the image is 
of such size that the subject just nicely fills the plate of Camera B. 
In camera C, then, the subject would occupy only a small spot in 
the center of the plate, while, in camera A, the image of the subject 
would be too large to be accommodated, and would lop over on all 
four sides. 

Now, in order to make the size of the image conform reasonably 
to the size of the plate, it would be necessary to move camera C 
much closer to the subject. For the same reason, it would be neces¬ 
sary to move camera A (35 mm.) considerably further hack. But 
moving camera C closer in would materially reduce its depth of field, 
since depth of field varies as the square of the object distance (at 
one-half the distance, depth of field would be one-quarter as much). 
And moving camera A further away would, in the same fashion, 
increase its depth of field (at twice the distance, depth of field would 
be four times as great). 

Here we have an instance of a relatively “long” focal length 
yielding much greater depth of field than relatively “short” focal 
length. Obviously, then, the size of the camera and the conditions 
imposed by it are of much more importance than simple focal lengths 
in the matter of depth of field. 


21 


It should be noted, however, that the miniature is not a con¬ 
venient type of camera for those whose eyesight is defective. This 
is owing to the small size of the image in the finder. Those who wear 
glasses encounter considerable difficulty in getting the glasses and 
the finder simultaneously into focus. For persons so handicapped, 
a camera of the reflex type, which shows the image in the actual 
dimensions of the negative, is undoubtedly the best equipment. 

After the miniature type, the reflex or Graflex type of camera 
is most desirable for purposes of outdoor portraiture, although it 
is necessarily much less portable and has a considerably higher 
operating cost. Reflex types are available in sizes from 2 *4x3 ^4. on 
up, but 4x5 is about the largest practicable size for outdoor use. 

Whatever type or make of camera you select, let it be your study 
to get the best possible use out of that camera. After you have made 
your choice, stick to it. The camera is your instrument of expression, 
and only by hanging on until you master its peculiar quirks and 
idiosyncrasies can you expect to accomplish anything photographi¬ 
cally worthwhile. Any one camera intelligently used is ten times 
better than ten cameras used in rotation. 

Tripod 

When you buy a tripod, make up your mind to spend enough 
money to get a good one. A cheap and flimsy article is worth abso¬ 
lutely nothing, and is in fact a definite liability. And don’t be led 
astray by considerations of excessive compactness and lightness. 
The job of a tripod is to hold the camera absolutely immobile and 
firm, and it can’t do this with spindly legs and weak joints. So choose 
a tripod that is a little heavier and a little stronger than seems en¬ 
tirely necessary. 

A good tripod should be capable of being adjusted at any inter¬ 
mediate height in its range of extension. 

The tripod should be equipped with a swivel head, or, for mini¬ 
ature cameras, a ball-and-socket head. 

Accessories 

I mention here all the accessories that are required for outdoor 


22 


portraiture. It is not well for you to cumber yourself with any 
others. 

A hood for the lens is required at all times in outdoor work. 

A cable release is also a necessary item. 

Filters are made in hundreds of shades and hues. Out of this 
collection there is only one that you need to own—the Wratten K2, 
which is a medium yellow in color. There is also occasional use for 
the Wratten “G”—which is a dark yellow filter. To possess any 
others is merely to weigh yourself down with unnecessary and con¬ 
fusing side-issues. 

A valuable accessory which many amateurs fail to avail them¬ 
selves of is the blue-gray structure filter or viewing glass. This device, 
of course, is not used in front of the lens as other filters are, but is 
simply held before the eye to assist one in checking on the photo¬ 
graphic qualities of the subject matter. By its use one is enabled to 
see the subject in a nearly monochromatic scale of values, freed from 
distracting or misleading influences of color. It is also of use in 
checking on lighting and in revealing excessive contrasts. A glass of 
medium blue-gray tone is most useful for this purpose, but a two 
inch square of blue “Pot Glass” is nearly as good. 

A Light Meter? 

This is an optional matter. A good light meter, of the photo-cell 
type, if used correctly and discreetly, may be a worthwhile item of 
equipment, and may in time enable you to effect a considerable 
saving in film. But it is far from indispensable. Indeed, if one 
becomes too dependent on it, it may prove to be more of a handicap 
than a help. So, unless you can well afford it, it is wiser to forego 
a meter and to spend the additional money on more essential parts 
of your equipment. 

A procedure will be suggested in Chapter Three for securing 
good exposures without the use of a meter. 

Lighting Control 

A reflector is necessary at most times for good photography out- 


23 



Figure 7. 

Construction of 
folding reflector. 


doors. Much can be done by taking advantage of natural sources 
of reflection—sand, water, stucco walls, etc.—but there is also need 
of a good-sized artificial reflector. 

A reflector of adequate size, preferably not smaller than four 
feet square, is awkward to transport unless it is constructed so that 
it can be folded into reasonably small compass. The construction of 
such a reflector is shown in Figure 7. The frame, of l"x2" white 
pine, is built in two halves. Each half is hinged with a 1^4"xl^4" 
butt, and each of these corners is stiffened with a desk lid hinge 
(Figure 8). The two halves of the frame are joined by a pair of 
suitcase catches (Figure 9).* The frame is covered with white 
muslin, which is attached along two opposite edges only. 

By loosening the catches, the frame separates into its two halves, 
each of which may be folded together. The cloth is then rolled up 
on the folded frame and the whole makes a compact bundle. (Figure 
10 ). 

* The butts, desk lid hinges and suitcase catches are standard items that may be obtained at any 
hardware store. 


24 



























Figure 8. Detail Figure 9. Detail Figure 10. Reflector 

of reflector. of reflector. rolled up. 


Carrying Case 

Not only should the camera have a case of its own, but you should 
have a sturdy case large enough to accommodate all your smaller 
and more fragile accessories, including spare and exposed film. 

Never carry film magazines or filters loose in your pockets. The 
filters are liable to scratching or other damage, and dust and lint 
are sure to work their way into your film. 

Carry a small screw driver in your case. Occasions frequently 
arise when it is needed to make adjustments on the camera or tripod. 
Keep lens tissue at hand and use it frequently. 

Choice of Film 

With artificial light in the studio, ortho emulsions are definitely 
preferable for portraiture. Outdoors, ortho is subject to some quirks 
that make it harder to use, but it is still to be preferred in many 
instances. At its best (even outdoors) ortho yields a brilliance of 
rendering and a delicacy of half-tone gradation that cannot be 
duplicated by any other type of emulsion. 

Ortho’s immoderate sensitivity to blue and green make it un¬ 
suited for portraiture when sky or foliage are involved, the sky 
being rendered completely white and foliage much lighter than flesh 


25 







tones. However, with the addition of a K2 filter, it is possible with 
ortho to secure a fairly substantial tone in the sky. (This was the 
combination in the Frontispiece.) Indeed, when ortho is used out¬ 
doors, it is best to keep to the K2 filter in all cases. 

Ortho is not recommended, however, for a set-up with foliage 
in the background, or for a background of sky with clouds. In these 
cases, use pan film with the K2 filter. This combination gives lumi¬ 
nosity to flesh tones seen against a background of foliage. For melo¬ 
dramatic “over-corrected” skies, such as that in Figure 37, one 
requires pan film with a G filter. 

We are not here concerned with pedantic “accuracy” in color 
rendering; these recommendations are based solely on effectiveness 
of presentation. 

Except under special conditions that really demand them (as 
suggested in Chapter Seven) steer clear of super-sensitive, ultra¬ 
speed emulsions. Extra speed is gained only by the sacrifice of 
other far more essential photographic qualities—notably, fine grain 
and gradation. 

Always carry plenty of negative material with you. To lose a 
magnificent lighting or an unduplicatable composition because you 
stinted on film is a very unwise economy. 

Equipment for Location Trips 

When one takes a model and goes “on location” in the foothills 
or at the beach, a few additional items of equipment are required. 

(1) Costume and “costume elements.” (See Chapter Six.) 

(2) Make-up material and hand mirror. 

(3) A few safety pins and hairpins. 

(4) Lunches and canteen of water. (If you are going far 
afield.) 

(5) Small first-aid kit, or at least a bottle of iodine. 

(6) A couple of baskets to pack these things in. The baskets 
may sometimes serve as “props” in pictures. (Note 
Figure 57.) 

(7) A piece of straw matting, about six feet square, upon 


26 


which the model may dress and spread costumes. 

(8) Finally, and extremely important, you should protect 
yourself with some sort of liability insurance in case the 
model breaks her leg or sits on a cactus. Accidents- - 
unlikely as it may seem —do happen on these occasions, 
and it is expedient to be protected. 

Summary of Equipment 

Here, in brief, is the equipment for outdoor portraiture. 
Required equipment. 

Camera—which must meet the following specifications: 

1. Lens of short focal length. 

2. Focuses with model close in. 

3. Full range of shutter speeds. 

4. Iris diaphragm with full range of settings. 

5. Facilities for attaching to tripod. 

A strong tripod. 

Lens hood. 

Cable release. 

Wratten K2 filter. 

Structure filter. 

Folding reflector. 

Case for camera and small accessories. 

Small screw driver. 

Plenty of film (ortho and pan). 

Lens tissue. 

Optional equipment. 

Light meter (of photocell type). 

Wratten “G” filter. 

Special equipment for field trips. 

As outlined above. 


27 


Chapter Two 

The General Problems of Outdoor Portraiture 


We have remarked on the fact that outdoor portraiture is apt 
to be the first problem that the amateur essays with his new equip¬ 
ment. We have also noted that the problem is not so easy as it looks, 
and that the ambitious and hopeful experimenter often goes sadly 
haywire. For better understanding of the general problem, it will 
prove instructive to us to go along with such an amateur on one of 
his first expeditions and observe what he does. From examination 
of his results we will be able to derive a basis for self-criticism useful 
to those desirous of substantially improving their procedure and 
results. 

A Sample of Procedure 

These are the usual ingredients: the amateur and his new camera. 
When to these are added the stimulus of a girl friend and soft spring 
weather, the urge to try some outdoor portraits is well-nigh irresis¬ 
tible. So the date is set, a picnic somewhere with the camera and 
the girl friend. 

When the day arrives, he notices with dismay that there are a 
few clouds threatening to mask the bright spring sunshine. So, at 
the appointed ten o’clock, he bundles the girl and his camera into 
his car and leaves for the picnic grounds in some haste. On the 


28 


way, he allows himself to dream a little, and imagines in some detail 
the numerous beautiful pictures he is going to get. The girl at his 
side is a creature of mystery and glamour; Birch Park, for which 
they are heading, is a beautiful spot and the day is sunny and bright. 
What better omens could there he for some swell pictures? 

There is a film of cloud over the sun when they arrive. So they 
dawdle a bit in picking a spot for lunch and unloading the car, and 
the cloud passes over—to his great relief. 

Without further delay, he unpacks his camera and looks around 
for the brightest sunshine he can find. Then he leads Genevieve out 
into the glare and turns her so she gets the most light possible on 
her face. He is a little in doubt, when it comes to this point, as to 
how to pose her. But she has been reading numerous film magazines, 
and has been rehearsing charm and allure in her mirror. So she 
goes through her repertoire of expressions and postures, and he 
clicks his camera at them all, with increasing amazement and delight, 
confident that masterpieces are piling up by the dozens. 

Along about two-thirty or three o’clock in the afternoon, because 
the light seems to be losing some of its brilliancy, they desist from 
their picture taking and presently head for home. On the way, he 
stops at the corner drug-store and leaves his precious films to be 
developed and printed. 

The Results 

And when, the next day, he picks up his films and the glossy 
contact prints—what does he find? Something, unfortunately, very 
much like the pictures displayed in Figures 11 to 14. It is Genevieve 
undubitably, what has happened to her? What has become of 
the many delightful and amazing portraits that he seemed to see in 
front of his camera? Just what has gone wrong? 

Let us examine these pictures candidly and see if we can’t dis¬ 
cover the sources of the failures and disappointments that consist¬ 
ently dog the footsteps of the amateur in outdoor portraiture. And 
while we are looking these over, you might be checking up on your 
pictures also; for, unless you have advanced to a stage of excellence 


29 



Figure 11. Figure 12. 

What’s wrong with this picture? And this? 

where you no longer require this hook, your pictures will reveal 
some of the self-same errors. 

Look first at Figure 11. (This, incidentally is one of my own 
juvenile efforts along this line, taken some twenty-odd years ago). 
The following faults are obvious: 

1. There is considerable over-exposure, leading to blank 
areas in the foreground and poor gradation in the face. 

2. Lighting is contrasty and bad in angle, with black empty 
shadows. 

3. Background is contrasty and confused, attracting much 
more attention than the subject. 

4. Arrangement of figure is hunched and awkward. 

Turn now to Figure 12, a fairly typical example. Notice the 
following outstanding faults: 

1. Drastic over-exposure of background. 

2. Violent and contrasty light. 

3. Background more strongly illuminated than subject. 

4. Background contrasty and confused. 


30 






Figure 13. 
And this? 


Figure 14. 
And this? 


5. Awkward stance of figure, clumsily over-balanced. 

In Figure 13, note the following faults: 

1. Camera not level. Note sloping roof line. 

2. High position of camera emphasizing background and 
twisted arrangement of body. 

3. Lighting too harsh and contrasty for subject, bad cast 
shadows, no relieving reflection. 

4. Utterly confused background full of contrast and mean¬ 
ingless clutter. 

5. Slumped arrangement of body, “collapsed abdomen,” 
fore-shortened arm. 

Figure 14 has the best pictorial possibilities of the lot. It might 
readily have been an excellent picture, had it not been for a few 
readily corrected errors. 

1. Camera too high, emphasizing beach rather than figure. 

2. Over-exposure, burning out gradations in light areas. 


31 




3. Sordid, messy and incongruous background. 

4. Arrangement of figure much better than in Figure 13, 
but still marred by the squashed upper arm. 

The Four Sources of Error 

From the basis of these four pictures, we note that the errors, 
numerous and varied as they are, fall into four general classes. 

1. Errors in camera manipulation. For the inexperienced 
amateur—and even to the more advanced amateur (who 
should know better), mechanical and technical blunders 
are a very prolific source of disappointment. 

2. Errors in lighting. This is another very common source 
of trouble in outdoor portraiture. Lightings have a way 
of looking much different to the camera than they do to 
the eye. 

3. Errors in the background. A background tliat is badly 
chosen or awkwardly treated will spoil your picture, no 
matter how attractive and well-pliotographed the subject 
in front of it may be. 

4. Errors in the arrangement of material (human or other¬ 
wise). The posing of the people in front of your camera, 
and the arrangement of costumes and properties in rela¬ 
tion to them, will often lead you into startling mistakes 
and errors in judgment. 

These, then, are the four general sources of errors in outdoor 
portraiture. Among them you will find the reason why your last 
batch of pictures didn’t turn out so well. 

1. Manipulation of the camera 

2. Lighting 

3. Backgrounds 

4. Arrangement of material before the camera. 

Detailed analysis of these four sources of error, and consideration 
of means whereby you can eliminate them from your work, will 
form the basis of the next four chapters. 


32 


Chapter Three 


Handling the Camera 


In this chapter we deal with the first source of errors in outdoor 
portraiture: faulty manipulation of the camera. Some of these mis¬ 
takes that I shall mention may seem to be of an obvious and elemen¬ 
tary nature—nothing that anyone in possession of their faculties 
and a knowledge of which is the front end of the camera would be 
likely to indulge in. But these mistakes happen so often that there 
is obviously need of mentioning them. Indeed, it is barely possible 
that you may have fallen into some of these errors yourself. 

For some errors there is really no excuse. Ignorance, sloppiness, 
carelessness are at the root of these. Yet we all, in our less inspired 
moments, are apt to fall into them. It is well to mention them so 
that we may guard ourselves against them. 

Other errors involve more technical things—necessary but in¬ 
volved matters that most of us never fully get the hang of. I mention 
them all together, the infantile errors and the erudite failings, for 
such is the peculiar nature of photography that the talented beginner 
may produce a stunning picture while the old timer commits a 
flagrant and nit-witted boner. 

Double Exposure 

Failure to advance the film between exposures spoils two poten- 


33 


tial pictures and wastes film as well. This fault is sheer absent- 
mindedness, and should he tolerated only in the very elderly. Hap¬ 
pily, the ingenious mechanism of the higher priced minicams renders 
this error impossible. For those not so protected, it is essential that 
they make the advancing of the film part of an invariable, instinctive 
routine. 

Dirty Lens 

This is a commoner error than you would think, and is a frequent 
cause of imperfect definition. Dust collects rapidly, and opening 
the camera or adjusting the diaphragm will often leave a finger-print 
on the lens. Use lens tissue for cleaning it, rather than your hand¬ 
kerchief or sleeve. It is well to check on the condition of the lens 
several times during a sitting. 

Out of Focus 

Sharp and clean focus is an absolute requirement for good work 
in outdoor portraiture. The direct and sincere quality of sunlight 
and the out-of-doors demand such presentation. Hence any failing 
in this respect is particularly noticeable. 

Lack of good clean definition in outdoor portraiture depends on 
two adjustments: (1) the focusing adjustment, and (2) the dia¬ 
phragm setting. For the moment we are concerned with the former 
source of trouble. 

Figure 15 is a typical instance, not too exaggerated, of what hap¬ 
pens when one is careless in this matter. The unpleasantness and 
slipshod impression are obvious. 

Focus on some small and clearly defined detail in the subject. 
The “bead” or bright highlight in the eye is generally chosen for 
this purpose in portraiture. When using a camera of either the 
reflex or view type, be sure to open the diaphragm to the largest 
stop during the focusing operation. 

Having once secured focus, check on it constantly . Every time 
the camera or the subject is moved at all, check up on your focus.* 

* Except when using the “fixed range” system for certain types of subject matter. See Chapter 
Seven. 


34 




Figure 15. Camera out of focus Figure 16. Camera movement. 


A favorite mental lapse of photographers consists of focusing with 
excruciating and microscopic care—and then changing the set-up 
and shooting without focusing again. Practice eternal vigilance in 
this matter. Even during a series of exposures of an unchanged 
set-up it is best to interrupt yourself to check on the focus, as the 
adjustment may he disturbed by the operations of resetting the 
shutter or turning up the film. 

It really should not he necessary to speak of such things as soft- 
focus lenses and diffusing filters. These are merely devices for spoil¬ 
ing focus, and represent the perverse aberrations of taste of a 
pictorial period now happily outgrown. The wishy-washy weakness 
and fuzzy futility of the Cotton-Wool period of photography are now 
plainly evident to everyone. Particularly objectionable is the appli¬ 
cation of this technique to outdoor portraiture, for it is uttterly 
opposed to all the implications of the outdoor setting—directness, 
cleanness and sincerity. 


35 


Lack of Depth of Field 

This is another common fault somewhat allied in effect to the 
foregoing, though due to a different cause. Like poor focus, it leads 
to lack of clearness and sharpness, hut, unlike Figure 15, this lack 
of clearness is apparent in only one plane. Very familiar are such 
pictures as Figure 52, in which only the foreground is clearly ren¬ 
dered, while the background is badly fuzzed. Less common, but 
even more distressing, is the opposite condition, with the background 
sharp and near objects blurred. 

This focusing in one plane only (or “lack of depth of field”) is 
caused by too large an aperture. If you shoot out of doors with your 
lens at the largest possible aperture (or “wide open”), the lack of 
depth of field is bound to be very noticeable in your picture. This 
fault is particularly apparent with larger cameras with lenses of 
long focal length. A miniature camera with a lens of fairly short 
focal length (50 millimeters) is freest of this fault. 

As we have seen, the whole implication of sunlight and the out- 
of-doors calls for the utmost cleanness and directness of presentation. 
Therefore, any obvious absence of depth of field is felt to be wrong 
in outdoor portraiture. Such a situation as that mentioned above, 
where the background is sharp and the principal image is unclear, 
is, of course, inexcusable. The opposite condition where the principal 
image is sharp and the background slightly out of focus, is sometimes 
pleasing (Figure 57), but is only permissible when the background 
is not sufficiently blurred to draw attention to itself or when it has 
no direct relationship to the image. 

With a close up head there is less need for extreme sharpness, 
provided that fantastic smears and “gall-stones” (see Chapter Five) 
are avoided. But with full length (or nearly full length) figures, 
there is need of reasonably good definition of the background. 

To make the most efficient use of your lens in these cases, and to 
secure depth of field without too much loss of speed, it is necessary 
to take advantage of the optical phenomenon known as “hyperfocal” 
distance. 

Now, the depth of field of a lens at a given aperture varies 


36 


directly as the square of the distance of the object focused upon. 
At F:8 for example, an object twenty feet away from the lens would 
have sixteen times the depth of field that it would have at five feet. 
Depth of field thus increases enormously as the distance of the object 
increases. 

Depth of field is, of course, a zone of definition that extends both 
in front of and behind the point focused on. When the object is very 
near the lens, the front plane of definition is only slightly closer to 
the point of focus than the rear plane. As the object moves further 
away from the camera, the depth of field of course increases, but it 
increases much more rapidly behind the object than it does in front 
of it. So as the object distance grows, the depth behind grows by 
leaps and bounds. Finally, as a certain distance is reached, the rear 
plane reaches infinity, and, as far as the eye can detect, everything 
beyond the object is in sharp definition. This distance is called the 
“hyperfocal” distance for the given lens and aperture. 

Now, it is a curious fact that, when the hyperfocal distance is 
reached, the front plane of definition is located at just one-half this 
distance. That is, if the hyperfocal distance for a given aperture is 
40 feet—with everything beyond sharply defined—then everything 
would also be in focus down to 20 feet of the camera. So the actual 
depth of field would extend from 20 feet to infinity. 

In this situation, if there are no noticeable foreground elements 
to get out of focus, the reasonable procedure to get full depth with 
a figure would be to place it just within the range of the front plane 
of definition—say 23 feet away—and focus on the 40 foot hyperfocal 
distance. Focusing on the figure itself would require, in order to get 
full depth, a much smaller aperture and almost four times the 
exposure. 

So, by taking practical advantage of this phenomenon of hyper¬ 
focal distance, it is possible to secure the same effective depth of 
field with about one-quarter the exposure that would be required 
in focusing directly on the subject. 

The actual hyperfocal distance for a given aperture and lens i^ 


37 


obtained by use of a rather complicated formula.* There are also 
available numerous tables of hyperfocal distances. Of course, neither 
formula nor tables are of any use to the photographer in the field. 
There are, fortunately, various useful means of approximation. With 
a reflex camera, it is practicable (if the subject is not too close to 
the camera) to proceed as follows: Focus, with lens wide open, on 
some object about twice as far away as the principal subject. Then 
close down until the principal subject is sharp. The whole back¬ 
ground will then be sharp also. This procedure is feasible only when 
there is no need to close down beyond F:16. Beyond this point, the 
image is too faint to be useful. 

Many view cameras and those of the “Kodak” type, as well as 
all the good miniatures, have depth of field scales. Intelligent use 
of these scales will enable you to secure the added speed that comes 
from taking advantage of hyperfocal distance. First, secure your 
distance from your range finder. Say the distance is 15 feet. Then 
set your focus at a little less than twice this distance, say 25 feet. 
Note on your scale the F: number standing opposite the infinity 
sign ( 00 ) and set your aperture for this number. This will bring 
everything into focus down to 12^4 feet. 

Take note of the following general rules for focus and depth of 
field: 

1. For close up heads, focus on the “bead” in the eye and 
then close down to F :6.3 or F :8. This will give reasonable 
sharpness for the background. 

2. If the head is placed against open sky, a larger aperture 
may be used, F :4.5 or thereabouts. 

3. For a full length figure, with no significant foreground 
in front of it, but with wide reaches of landscape behind 
it, make use (if speed is necessary) of the principle of 
hyperfocal distance. 

4. If the foreground material is important, it will be neces¬ 
sary to sacrifice speed and focus on the principal figure. 

• * K = (F/ne -f D F, to he specific. 


38 



or even a little in front of it, closing down to a corre¬ 
spondingly smaller stop. 

Bad Framing 

Inaccurate “aiming” of the camera will result in the subject 
being badly placed in the picture space. A picture that is crowded 
at one side or the top will not allow of sufficient adjustment to make 
a presentable composition when the projection print is made. Note 
that many “finders,” particularly on cheaper cameras, are thor¬ 
oughly inaccurate when working close in. In these cases, you must 
learn to make allowances (and remember to make them) for the 
peculiarities of your particular camera. 

Camera Not Level 

Sloped horizons and leaning towers are familiar earmarks of the 
work of tyros. In others, such flaws can only he indications of 
extreme haste or excessive carelessness. 

Camera Movement 

Hand held cameras on long exposures always betray some traces 
of movement. For all exposures of more than 1/25 of a second, the 
tripod should be used. You may think your hand is steady enough 
to hold the camera for exposures of 1/10 or 1/5, but definition will 
always be inferior in these cases. 

Indeed, it is best, except for angle shots, to use the tripod at all 
times. There is something about the mere act of setting up the tripod 
that induces a little more careful consideration of the material before 
the camera—and so leads to better pictures. 

Bad Camera Angle 

Camera angle is a tremendously important matter. Note, in 
Figures 17 and 18, the change wrought by a shift in angle. 

Although the choice of the camera angle is, strictly speaking, a 
matter of mere camera manipulation, it has repercussions in all the 
other phases of outdoor portraiture—lighting, backgrounds and ar- 


39 



Figure 17. 

Change in angle . . 


rangement of subject matter. In these particular applications, angle 
will be dealt with in the next three chapters. 

Light in the Lens 

Direct light falling on the lens produces smears and halations 
that destroy the picture. It is safest to use a lens hood at all times 
outdoors. Even though you think you don’t need it, you may dis» 
cover too late that a series of slight shifts of position has put the 
sun smack in your lens. 

The Matter of Exposure 

A perennial source of worry to beginner and professional alike 
is this matter of exposure. Indeed, the beginner is apt to be less 
worried than the professional, for he hasn’t had time to make so 
many bad exposures. 

Owing to the variety of subject material and the wide range of 


40 





Figure 18. ... makes the picture. 


light intensities there prevalent, errors in exposure are particularly 
common in outdoor portraiture. These errors run all the way from 
the pale bleakness of over-exposure (Figure 12) to the murky gloom 
of under-exposure. (Figure 19.) Indoors or out, accurate exposure 
is extremely important, for it is the very beginning of good photo¬ 
graphic quality. 

Closely related to exposure, and of equally fundamental impor¬ 
tance, is the matter of development. Good negatives are only to be 
secured by the happy collaboration of these two factors. 

In two previous books,* I have outlined an inter-related system 
of exposure and development for securing the best possible negative 
quality for pictorial projection purposes. The system was sum- 

* New Projection Control, Chapter Three; Pictorial Lighting, Chapter Four. 


41 









marized in the formula: “The minimum of exposure with the maxi¬ 
mum of development.” This formula implied (1) an exposure based 
on the light-area of the subject (an exposure slightly under the 
prescribed “normal”), and (2) the fullest possible development, 
short only of fogging (development to “gamma infinity”). With 
proper emulsions and developers, it was possible to extend develop¬ 
ment to forty-five minutes upwards to an hour and a half. 

This procedure yielded a negative with a crisp and full rendition 
of the half-tones in the light-area, full-bodied but thin enough for 
projection. 

For purposes of outdoor portraiture, we need to note certain 
necessary qualifications of the original formula. 

1. New emulsions, particularly of the ultra-hypersuperspeed 
type, will not stand up under extended development. Nor 
will all developers lend themselves to the procedure. The 
following films and developers are recommended as a few 
that are amenable to “development to gamma infinity.” 

Films: 

Agfa Plenachrome and Finopan 
Dupont Superior 
Defender Portrait 
Eastman Verichrome 
Developers: 

Borax-Metol 
Agfa D-6 
Glycin 
Pyrocatechin 

2. The formula “minimum exposure with maximum devel¬ 
opment” is postulated on subject material of low contrast , 
the type of material that lends itself to the finest photo¬ 
graphic rendering. With outdoor lighting, however, this 
low contrast is not always available. To adapt procedure 
to circumstance, the following adjustment is suggested: 
with lighting of low contrast (Type A or B*), use the 

* See Chapter Four. 


42 




“Windy Day ” 


William Mortensen 


43 


r 


Figure 19. Under-exposure. 

next higher Weston rating and (film emulsion permit¬ 
ting) give full development (to “gamma infinity”). With 
lighting of high contrast (sometimes Type D and always 
Type E*), use the next lower Weston rating and give 
slightly abbreviated development. 

Use of Meter 

There is no royal road to perfect exposure. He who thinks he 
has it is kidding himself and will presently come a cropper. The 
photocell meter is the closest thing to a scientific certainty in the 
field, but even it will lead one into grotesque aberrations. For no 
clearly defined reason, one goes through periods of consistent under¬ 
exposure and then presently expiates for it by periods of equally 
consistent over-exposure. And, during these periods, he will find 
that he makes about the same error whether he uses the meter or 
just guesses at it. 

Many complicating factors enter to upset the verdict of the meter. 
Within its field, the photocell is as a rule fairly accurate. But its 
field is a very restricted one. The meter reading can only tell you 
the amount of light falling on the photocell. It can’t tell you whether 

* Sec Chapter Four. 



44 






“Mildred” 


William Mortensen 


45 













you have your meter aimed right, or whether your shutter is sluggish 
or precipitate. Nor can it tell you whether your emulsion rating is 
accurately stated. 

The best method that I have been able to find to insure a fair 
percentage of good exposures, is to depend on the meter only to 
establish a norm. Working from the basis of the meter reading, one 
should make three exposures of each set up—the exposure dictated 
by the meter and also half and double this exposure. If the meter 
says one-half second, make exposures also at one-quarter second and 
one second. It will take a little more film this way, but it is better 
to put a hit of trust in the laws of chance than to run the risk of a 
spoiled hatch of film—all over-exposed or all under-exposed accord¬ 
ing to strict scientific procedure. 

In making use of a meter, it is advisable to take high speed 
ratings with some reservation. In my own experience, speed is 
never so high nor grain so fine, as we are told it is. 


46 


Chapter Four 


Lighting 


Lighting problems, as found out of doors, differ from those of 
the studio largely in the absence of handy means of control. Much 
effort is expended in increasing the flexibility of indoor artificial 
lighting. In the studio one juggles with lighting units, moving them 
to right or left of the subject, pulling them closer in or further hack, 
turning on additional units or dimming them up or down with 
rheostats. 

None of these sliennanigans, so dear to the heart of the studio 
photographer, are available to the one who takes his pictures out¬ 
doors. Daylight is there and you take it or leave it. This makes 
matters a hit harder, but in many ways it helps rather than hinders 
the photographer. As a compensation for the rather dubious advan¬ 
tage of flexibility, daylight provides the photographer with a de¬ 
pendable and unified source of illumination. Use of daylight auto¬ 
matically elminates much of the notorious fakery and foolishness 
of studio lighting. Only in the studio, with artificial lighting would 
it be possible to arrive at such an effect as Figure 20. 

Aside from such merely mechanical flexibility, daylight actually 
has a variety of moods that is far beyond the reach of the most com¬ 
plex of lighting systems. The light of the sun is never exactly the 


47 


same on any two days, and varies from minute to minute. The 
outdoor photographer must be a thorough-going opportunist who 
takes appropriate advantage of what the moment offers. 

There are four ways in which daylight may change, all of which 
are important to the photographer. These four modes of change are: 

1. Change in angle. 

2. Change in intensity. 

3. Change in color. 

4. Change in quality. 

1. The angle of daylight may alter either horizontally or 
vertically. One secures a relative change in the horizon¬ 
tal angle of illumination by moving to the right or the 
left of the subject. The vertical angle is, of course, deter¬ 
mined by the elevation of the sun. 

2. According to W. Abney, the actinic power of the sun, 
from dawn to midday, increases about 50,000 times. The 
sun thus offers a huge range of intensities and of contrast 
between shadow and light areas. 

3. The light of the sun is commonly regarded as white in 
color. White light is the result of the balanced mixture 
of the primaries. Any condition that results in partial 
absorption of any of the primaries results in a tinted light 
with a preponderance of one tone. Since the photo¬ 
graphic medium is so curiously sensitive to color, color 
changes in the light source constitute an important factor 
in lighting. 

4. Quality is chosen as a term to describe the degree of soft¬ 
ness or harshness of light. Variations in light quality are 
many, and are due to the interaction of two factors: 

a. Diffusion of the source, reducing the sharpness of definb 
tion between light and shadow areas. Such things as fog, 
smoke or atmosphere serve as natural diffusing elements, 
and may considerably alter the effect of sunlight. They 
not only reduce the intensity of the sunlight, but also 
spread it. In terms of studio equipment, atmospheric 


48 



Figure 20. Studio criss-cross lighting. Figure 21. Over-head contrasty light. 


diffusing agents convert the sun from a spot-light into a 
“broad.” The degree of diffusion may vary widely—from 
the slight softening induced by the atmosphere at sunrise 
or sunset to the extreme diffusion of a heavily overcast 
day, when the light has scarcely any apparent direction 
and contrasts are reduced to a minimum. (Figure 22.) 
b. Reflection into the shadow areas, resulting in reduced 
gross contrast. Natural reflecting elements are provided 
by such things as clouds, water, sandy beach, stucco walls, 
etc. Artificial reflectors are also frequently employed in 
outdoor portraiture. Reflecting elements serve in a dif¬ 
ferent manner to accomplish the same end as that served 
by the diffusing elements—i.e., reduction of the gross 
contrast of daylight. They do this by projecting additional 
illumination into the shadowed areas of the subject. Re¬ 
flection produces a sort of natural cross illumination, but 
a sort that never rivals or detracts from the principal 


49 



source of illumination—which is just what artificial cross¬ 
lighting is apt to do. (Note Figure 20.) 

For the pictorialist and the maker of portraits, proper 
appreciation of this variation of quality is extremely im¬ 
portant. 

The conditions that may cause these changes to take place are 
very numerous. Generally speaking, however, these conditions fall 
into four classes. 

1. Time of day. Change in the time of day causes the sunlight 
to vary in all four ways: in angle, in intensity, in quality and in 
color. In early morning or late afternoon, for example, the angle 
of the sun is low, giving an almost horizontal illumination to the 
subject (Figure 26). The intensity is slight, owing to the thick layers 
of atmosphere and mist encountered hy the low sun. The quality of 
the light is soft, owing to diffusion hy the thick atmosphere and the 
considerable reflection from the opposite quarter of the sky. These 
thick layers of atmosphere also alter the color of the sunlight, filter¬ 
ing out much of the blue and ultra-violet and emphasizing the red. 
All these things—low angle, slight intensity, soft quality, restrained 
ultra-violet and blue—make for the best of pictorial and portrait 
rendering. 

Towards midday, the description is different in every particular. 
The angle of the sun is high, leading to awkward illumination of 
subject matter (Figure 21). The intensity is at the maximum, lead¬ 
ing to strong contrasts. Under usual conditions, the midday quality 
is harsh. 

This harshness is exaggerated hy the color of the light, with 
maximum emphasis on the blue and ultra-violet—the most actini¬ 
cally active parts of the spectrum. All these things in midday illu¬ 
mination—high angle, maximum intensity, harsh quality, emphasis 
on the blue and ultra-violet—tend toward hard and contrasty repre¬ 
sentation, unsuited for most pictorial and portrait work. 

2. Weather conditions. This is the second of the general condi¬ 
tions that produce changes in daylight. Fog and clouds modify sun¬ 
light in various ways. They reduce its intensity in varying degrees. 


50 



Figure 22. 


Extreme diffusion of overcast day. 


51 






They change its quality by reflection and diffusion. A low sun with 
brilliant white cumulus cloud masses opposite, for example, will 
yield brilliance without harshness. A sun veiled by thin clouds or 
traces of fog is softened in quality without losing brilliance. Thicker 
clouds or fog may soften the light quality to an undesirable degree. 
(Note the “dead” Type A light hereafter described.) When the sun 
is softened by fog or clouds, its angle becomes less important. Much 
higher angles may be tolerated under these conditions. Indeed, with 
the proper amount of clouds, an excellent light for pictorial purposes 
may be secured with the source almost directly overhead. (Figure 
57.) Clouds and fog also alter the color of light, reducing the amount 
of the violently actinic blue and ultra-violet. 

3. Surroundings. The peculiarities of the setting constitute the 
third of the conditions producing changes in daylight. Surroundings 
variously affect the light of the sun. If they furnish shade, they 
obviously affect the intensity as well as the quality of the light. Often 
the setting (in a patio, for example) will afford extensive reflecting 
surfaces which further alter the quality (Figure 31). Such locations 
as the beach will offer other problems in reflection. Color also is 
affected: in the shadow of foliage, for instance, there is often a 
preponderance of green, which adversely affects the representation 
of flesh tones—particularly with ortho emulsions. 

4. Mechanical controls. Offhand, we would think of daylight 
as being susceptible to no control whatever. Of course, it has none 
of the handy flexibility of studio lighting. Nevertheless, daylight is 
capable of a surprising amount of control. These mechanical means 
of control may effect changes in sunlight along all four of the modes 
that we have described. 

a. Control of angle. Obviously, no absolute control over the 
angle of the sun is possible to mortal man. But relative 
control is readily attained through control of the camera 
angle. For example, the effect of horizontal illumination 
may vary greatly according to the angle of the camera 
relative to the angle of the light. The horizontal light may 
be made to yield a flat front illumination (Figure 26) 


52 



or a strongly marked cross-light (Figure 27) according 
to the choice of camera angle. There are an infinite num¬ 
ber of possible combinations of these two factors. Not 
only may the camera shoot parallel with the direction of 
the light (as in Figure 26) ; or at nearly right angles to 
it (as in Figure 27); it may also shoot in opposition to 
the direction of the light (as in Figure 23). Each of these 
combinations has distinctly different characteristics, and 
there are possible an infinite number of intermediate 
combinations. 

In all cases, the effect of the angle of the light is largely 
dependent on the relative angle of the camera. Even a 
direct overhead light may be given the aspect of a hori¬ 
zontal light if the camera is placed so as to shoot down 
on the subject. (Imagine, for example, your subject lying 


53 






on the beach with your camera shooting from above). 
Such a freakish situation is not apt to occur frequently 
in outdoor portraiture, to be sure, but bear in mind that 
it is impossible to generalize broadly about the effect of 
various lighting angles without taking camera angles into 
account also. It is the interaction of these two factors 
that is important. 

b. Control of intensity. Direct control of the sun’s inten¬ 
sity is not to he achieved. But the same end is attained 
by the simple expedient of moving the subject from the 
light into the shade. 

c. Control of quality. Both factors of quality may be arti¬ 
ficially altered. 

1. Artificial diffusion. In the old days of motion pic¬ 
tures, when they were all made by daylight, consider¬ 
able use was made of artificial means of diffusion. 
These devices, consisting of large screens of trans¬ 
lucent muslin or scrim, are available to the maker of 
outdoor portraits, but are much too bulky for con¬ 
venient use by the amateur. 

2. Artificial reflection. Some sort of artificial reflector, 
similar to that described in Chapter One, is necessary 
to deal with the more contrasty phases of daylight. 

d. Control of color. Direct control of the color of sunlight 
is, of course, not possible. But the same end may be 
handily achieved photographically by controlling the 
color of the light that is permitted to reach the emulsion. 
This is done by the use of filters which, as their name 
suggests, act by straining out the undesired components 
of sunlight. For pictorial work out of doors, the unde¬ 
sirable items are the excessive blues and ultra-violets. 
The yellow filters, K2 and G, restrain these colors. When 
blue sky is the background, these filters indirectly give 
the same control of background tone as is attained indoors 


by adjustment of the rear lighting unit.* 

Protean Variety of Daylight 

The constantly varying interrelationships of these four types of 
changes make daylight a thing absolutely incapable of accurate 
definition. Every minute of the day, daylight changes in intensity 
and quality. Nor is it any two days the same. 

1. Change in angle. 

2. Change in intensity. 

3. Change in quality. 

4. Change in color. 

* 

But in all these infinite variations, there is no such thing as an 
intrinsically bad light or an intrinsically good one. There are only 
good and bad uses of light. If the light in your outdoor picture 
seems bad, don’t blame the light but blame your ineptness that used 
the light wrongly and applied it to the wrong kind of subject matter. 

There are, to be sure, certain qualities of sunlight that are more 
generally useful for purposes of outdoor portraiture, and most of 
the best average examples will be found to employ them. But this 
is not because this light is better than any other: it is simply because 
it better fits the average type of subject matter. With the wrong 
kind of subject matter, this average type of light can be made to 
seem bad. There is, in short, no possible variant of sunlight that, 
given the right subject matter, might not be used for outdoor por¬ 
traiture. 

Basic Limitation of Daylight 

One limitation of daylight determines its use and application. 
The limitation is simply this: daylight is derived from a single domi¬ 
nant source . 

This may appear to he much too obvious a fact to require such 
emphasis. But a realization of it will do much to help one to the 
correct use of outdoor light. This fact simplifies one’s problem and 
enforces the use of a cerlain amount of good taste. Only man, work- 

* See PICTORIAL LIGHTING. 


55 



ing with artificial light in a studio, can produce such a monstrosity 
of lighting as that shown in Figure 20, several competing light sources 
shining from several directions. 

What Light Does 

Reduced to simplest terms, daylight (or any other light) does 
just two things: 

1. It illuminates. 

2. It casts shadows. 

In its illuminating capacity, light reveals the differences in local 
tone or coloration in the object it shines upon. It shows the blue 
eyes, the red lips, the brown hair of your portrait subject. Photo¬ 
graphically, these differences are converted into various tones of 
gray. 

In its shadow casting capacity, light reveals protuberances on 
the illuminated surface. It thus reveals texture and larger plastic 
elements. 

In the transitions between light as an illuminant and as a caster 
of shadows, modelling is revealed. Modelling consists of gradual 
deviations in the direction of planes. Photographically, modelling 
appears in half-tones, in gradations between light and shadow. 

The nature of the subject matter will determine whether light 
should be employed as an illuminant (revealing local tone and 
color), as a caster of shadows (revealing texture), or in the inter¬ 
mediate phase (revealing modelling and gradation). 

Modelling is the essence of the human face, since the latter con¬ 
sists not only of the simple basic structural planes, but of innumer¬ 
able subtle transitions and modulations from one plane to another. 
These transitions can he realized only in terms of gradation and 
half-tone. Therefore, for most portraiture (whether indoor or out¬ 
door) the best sort of light will he found in the intermediate types 
that reveal modelling and gradation, rather than mere texture or 
mere local tone. 


56 




Figure 24. Type A. Figure 25. Type E. 


The Five Basic Types of Light 

On the basis of this dual function of light, we may roughly divide 
light as applied to outdoor portraiture into five basic types. 

Let us first note the two extreme types (Type A and Type E). 

The first of these Type A—displays light solely as an illuminant 
(Figure 24). It is the type of light that may be encountered in the 
early morning (half an hour before sunrise), in the evenings (half 
an hour after sunset), or on very gray and heavily overcast days. 
There is the fullest possible amount of diffusion and reflection, so 
that the illumination is almost equally strong from all quarters of 
the sky. There is, therefore, the minimum of shadow and modelling: 
but all differences in local tone or coloration are fully displayed. 

The other extreme type—Type E—displays light principally as 
a caster of shadows (Figure 25). It is the direct light of the sun 
from a cloudless sky during the middle part of the day. There is 
practically no diffusion or reflection, so that the shadows are black 
and empty of any detail. Nothing is revealed of the subject except 


57 













Figure 26. Type B. 


Figure 27. Type D. 



its textures and protuberances. Owing to the harsh contrasts, there 
is practically no modelling or gradation and little differentiation of 
local tone. 

As we shall see, the extreme types are very limited in application. 
Much more useful to average workers are Types B, C and D. 

Type B is the more useful form of Type A. Like Type A, it 
emphasizes differences of local tone. But it lacks the extreme degree 
of diffusion of Type A and has, therefore, well marked direction. 
So Type B displays not only the differences in local tone in the 
subject but also exhibits an extreme amount of gradation and model¬ 
ling (Figure 26 ). This type of light is encountered rather early in 
the morning or late in the afternoon, when there is a softly overcast 
sky that diffuses the light but does not destroy its direction. Among 
the studio lightings described in Pictoiial Lighting , Type B corre¬ 
sponds most closely to the so-called “Basic Light.” 

Type D is the more useful form of Type E. Like Type E, it 
emphasizes the shadows and the textures revealed thereby. But Type 


58 







D also utilizes a considerable amount of reflection—either by taking 
advantage of natural sources of reflection or by employing artificial 
reflectors—to break into the blackness of the shadows and suggest 
the presence of detail in them (Figure 27). Various circumstances 
may produce this sort of light: when the direct light of the sun is 
reflected from large white cloud masses in the opposite quarter of 
the sky; when light from a fairly high sun is reflected from water 
or sandy beach; or when direct sunlight is modified by artificial 
reflectors. Among the light types mentioned in Pictorial Lighting, 
Type D corresponds in most particulars to the “Dynamic Light.” 

Type C (Figure 28) designates the numerous variants interme¬ 
diate between Types B and D. It displays, in the light areas, the full 
modelling and gradation characteristic of Type B, but also has ample 
areas of rather soft shadows characteristic of Type D. Type C is 
encountered when a low angled sun is slightly diffused by thin mist 
or clouds and also undergoes reflection by cloud masses in the 
opposite part of the sky. Among the combinations described in 
Pictorial Lighting, Type C resembles somewhat both the “Plastic” 
and the “Modified Basic Light.” 


59 





These, then, are the five general types of light that the maker of 
outdoor portraits is likely to have to deal with. 

1. Type A. A light of extreme flatness, showing no cast shadow 
and practically no modelling, but revealing in full all differences in 
local tone. 

2. Type B. A light with more “punch” than Type A, so that 
subtleties of modelling are indicated. Its direction is from the front, 
however, so that no cast shadows are in evidence. There is still ample 
rendering of local tone. 

3. Type C. By arranging the subject in a type B light so that 
the soft illumination comes from the side, we secure a lighting of 
Type C. Shadows are clearly suggested, but owing to the diffusion 
of the source, they are quite luminous. 

4. Type D. Light that is strongly directional, with little diffu¬ 
sion. Use of reflecting elements prevents shadows from becoming 
opaque. Stress is on the texture of the material rather than its local 
tones. 

5. Type E. Extreme contrast of lighting. Dense shadows with 
no luminosity. Violent emphasis on protuberances and textures. 

Types B, C and D are the ones most apt to be useful to the 
average worker. For convenience in remembering this classification, 
it may he worth noting that—among the studio illuminations de¬ 
scribed in Pictorial Lighting —Type B corresponds roughly to the 
Basic Light and Type D to the Dynamic Light. 

These five types differ widely in their pictorial qualities. Dif¬ 
ferent qualities of light imply different sorts of subject matter. 

Use of Type A 

A flat “dead” light, such as Type A, is very critical of the material 
that is displayed under it. There is no punch or excitement in the 
light itself, and there is little display of gradation through modelling. 
It is necessary, therefore, to select material for the Type A light that 
has pictorial interest apart from its modelling and plastic qualities. 
This interest may be supplied by arresting arrangement of local tone 
or by attractive contour. 


60 


Figure 29. 

Type A. Interest supplied 
by tonal elements. 



In Figure 29, for example, despite the flatness of the light, 
interest is supplied by the contrasting tonal elements of dark hair 
and pale flesh, by the arrangement of the figure and by the pattern 
of stains on the old adobe wall. In a more brilliant light these rather 
contrasty tonal elements would no doubt prove jumpy and com 
fusing, but under the given conditions they serve to supply the 
excitement which is lacking in the light itself. 

In Figure 30, we have another instance of a justifiable use of 
the Type A light. Although the amount of modelling and gradation 
on the face is slight, pictorial interest is supplied by the contrasting 
tones of hair and flesh and by the fine contour of the profile. 

If you are confronted with a light of Type A characteristics, you 
are quite limited as to subject matter. In general, try to observe the 
following admonitions: 


6 ] 








1. Select subject matter distinguished by rather emphatic tonal 
pattern or striking contour rather than by modelling or tex¬ 
ture. 

2. Choose a feminine rather than a male subject. 

3. Choose a brunette rather than a hlond model. 

4. Pay especial attention to costume interest. 

5. Choose a full figure rather than a head. 

6. With a head, favor a profile rather than a full face angle. 

It will be useful to note the conditions that produced the Type 
A lighting in Figures 29 and 30. Figure 29 was taken on a gray day, 
the diffuse overhead light being further softened by the overhanging 
cloister and stuccoed walls of the patio. Figure 30 was taken rather 
late in the afternoon of a heavily overcast day, when the light was 
so completely diffused that the illumination was almost equal from 
all quarters of the sky. 

Use of Type B 

With a light of Type B, approximating the quality of the “Basic 
Light,” we are subject to much less severe limitation of subject mat¬ 
ter than with Type A. More nearly than any other. Type B repre¬ 
sents the “universal light.” It is a revealing light rather than an 
expressive light: subtle modelling and local tone alike are shown 
to the full.* Since it is frontal illumination, there is no distraction 
by cast shadows. The subject matter, under Type B light, must stand 
on its own merits. For best results, it is essential that this subject 
matter be of intrinsically high quality. 

Figure 31 is representative of material well adapted to the use 
of the Type B light—not too contrasty in local lone, and delicate 
rather than bold in modelling. A finely contoured profile, such as 
that shown in Figure 30, also lends itself to the Type B light. 

With a light of Type B characteristics, certain restrictions must 
be observed in its use. It will give a full complete rendering of 
any sort of subject matter, but it is, of course, most effective if used 
appropriately. 

* Provided, of course, lhat exposure and development are properly calibrated to the light-area of 
the subject. See Pictorial Lighting, Chapter Four, and New Projection Control, Chapter Three. 


62 




Figure 30. Type A. Interest supplied by contour. 


63 


1. Avoid conspicuous tonal contrast in subject matter. Blond 
subjects and those of medium coloring are better rendered than are 
extreme brunette types. 

2. Choose subjects in which the modelling is delicate rather 
than powerful. A strongly modelled head such as Figure 35 would 
be weakened under a Type B light. 

3. Generally speaking, the Type B light is feminine rather than 
masculine in its suggestion. 

4. The connotation of this light is repose rather than action. 
Avoid, therefore, too much action or animation with the Type B 
light. 

Figure 31, which we have chosen as representative of Type B 
lighting, was taken on a late summer afternoon with a sky veiled 
by a light high fog. Although diffused, the light still had plenty of 
vitality and clearly defined direction. The photographer stood with 
his back toward the brightest part of the sky. 

Use of Type C 

The same physical conditions—low sun and overcast sky—that 
produce the Type B light, also yield Type C. For the latter, the 
relative position of photographer and subject are so altered that 
the principal illumination comes from the side instead of from 
behind the photographer. 

This side illumination produces soft cast shadows that are com¬ 
pletely transparent (Figure 32 or Frontispiece). The strong over¬ 
head light from a thinly overcast sky at midday also produces a Type 
C illumination, but with downward cast shadows. 

The general feeling of Type C is very similar to that of Type B. 
It has a slightly more dynamic quality, however, owing to increased 
emphasis on modelling and texture. Type C, therefore, permits of 
some degree of animation and suggested ‘action. It is also appro¬ 
priate for masculine subjects, particularly if tliey are not too rough- 
hewn. 

Use of Type D 

The unbalanced, frequently spectacular quality of the Type D 


64 





Figure 31. Use of Type B light. 


65 













Figure 33. Use of Type D light. Figure 34. Type D light with 

reflection from wall. 


light necessitates much care in its use. It is perhaps the commonest 
type of outdoor light, hut it is by no means the easiest to handle. 
It requires the use of additional appurtenances in the way of reflec¬ 
tors and clever resourcefulness in taking advantage of natural re¬ 
flecting elements, as well as properly selected subject matter and 
skill in arranging it. 

Figures 33 and 34 show fairly characteristic examples of Type 
D light—strong cast shadows relieved by reflection, rather power¬ 
fully modelled subject matter, dramatically presented. 

D stands for “Dynamic,” and this term best describes the quali¬ 
ties of the Type D light. It suggests movement, animation, power. 
It is opposed to delicacy, softness, passivity. These considerations 
will guide us in our selection of appropriate subject matter for the 
Type D light. 

1. Choose subject matter that is best revealed in terms of tex¬ 
tures and its larger plastic elements. 

2. Avoid subject matter that is soft and subtle in its modelling. 


66 







Figure 32. Use of Type C light. 







3. Avoid subject matter that depends for its effect on its pattern 
of local tones. 

4. Type D lighting will generally favor the masculine rather 
than the feminine subject. 

5. Feminine subject matter, if used, should be presented in an 
active rather than a passive mood. 

Type D lighting is much less flexible and adaptable in practice 
than is Type B. Once the relative position of the subject and camera 
is established in a Type B light, the lighting is equally good for all 
possible angles and adjustments of the subject. But with a Type D 
set-up, the angle of the subject’s head must be carefully adjusted 
to the angle of the light in order to avoid awkward cast shadows. 
Probably only one or two variants of a given set-up will prove at all 
acceptable. 

A word as to the conditions of shooting Figure 33: The time 
was late afternoon with a nearly clear sky. Reflected light neces¬ 
sary to soften the strong cast shadows was secured by a large white 
cloth, held just to the right of the model. The white drapery of the 
costume furnished another reflecting element. The wall supplied 
reflection in Figure 34. 


68 




Figure 36. Type C light with filter. 


69 






Use of Type E 

Of all the five general types of outdoor light, Type E is at the 
same time the most difficult to use properly and the most limited in 
its application. It is seldom indeed that one finds material that is 
impressive enough in its gross plastic elements to justify disregard 
of the essentially photographic quality of gradation. Type E, or 
something like it, frequently appears in the work of amateurs, but 
is almost never justifiably employed. Not only must the subject 
matter be of unusual quality to admit of the stylized sculptural 
treatment characteristic of Type E light, but it must be arranged 
with extreme care and adjusted to the meticulously correct angle. 

Only such subject matter as that shown in Figure 35—rough, 
primitive, with exaggerated plastic qualities—is adapted to the Type 
E light. Without a model of these qualifications, you will produce 
only a “butchery by light.”* 

Figure 35 was taken in late afternoon under a very bright sun. 
No reflector was used. 

Effect of Filters 

In outdoor portraiture we meet a condition that has no counter¬ 
part in the studio. This is the color of the background and its rela¬ 
tionship to the color of the subject. 

In the studio, the background is usually white—more rarely gray 
or black. In any case, relationships in tone between the light area 
of the subject and the background are secured by adjustments of 
the relative illumination.** The tonal relationship of the background 
is, in studio lighting, a very essential part of the effect of the various 
types of illumination. 

A different and more difficult background problem confronts the 
maker of outdoor portraits. In the first place, the illumination of 
the background is not subject to control; second, the background is 
nearly always colored—usually with either the blue of the sky or 
the green of foliage. 

* The Model, page 49. 

** See Pictorial Lighting. 


70 




The use of filters, however, takes advantage of the color of the 
background in order to control tone relationships. 

Lightings of the more dynamic types—C, D and E—are more 
effective against a rather dark background. Even with panchromatic 
film, blue skies are apt to register unduly light. Under these condi¬ 
tions, there is often poor separation between flesh tone and sky 
tone. The use of a yellow filter will hold back the extremely actinic 
light of the sky and secure a better relationship of tones. 

In practice, not more than two filters will be needed—a K2 
filter for slight darkening of the sky and a “G” filter for “over¬ 
correction” and more pronounced deepening of the sky tone. 

Used with a Type C light, a K2 filter, by darkening the back¬ 
ground, changes the apparent quality of the light from Modified 
Basic to Plastic.* Note than in Figure 36, owing to the slight 
darkening of the sky, the background is of a tone darker than the 
light area of the face and lighter than the shadow area—which is 
the characteristic quality of the Plastic Light. Note further that, 
owing to the use of the filter, there is, in Figure 36, better separa- 

* Pictorial Lighting: page 66 and page 112. 


71 





tion between the tones of the sky and flesh and also increased 
luminosity in the shadows. 

Figure 37, was made with set-up similar to that of Figure 33, 
except that a “G” filter was used. By this means the bright blue 
sky was made quite dark, thus increasing the dramatic effect of the 
Type D light. A Type D light with an “over-corrected” sky closely 
approximates the effect of the “Dynamic Light.”* 

Lighting the Full Figure 

The five types of outdoor light—and their uses—have been 
considered in terms of their application to the face only. Employ¬ 
ment of the full figure, while not altering any of the general prin¬ 
ciples, introduces a few new considerations. 

In general, the full figure will tolerate—and often requires—a 
little more contrasty illumination than the face by itself. There are 
two reasons for this: 

(1) Distance tends to reduce contrast. This flattening ten- 

* Pictorial Lighting: Chapter Six. 


72 







Figure 39. Right and wrong placement of reflector. 

dency is apparent even when the camera distance is 
increased only by the extent necessary to include a full 
figure instead of a head study. A flat light tends to 
become flatter as the camera is moved back. A light, for 
example, that is a little on the flat side of Type B for a 
head study, will appear definitely as a “dead” Type A 
light when used for a full figure. 

(2) A full figure generally suggests more drama than a head 
does. Consequently, increased brilliance of lighting is 
felt to be appropriate with the former subject matter. 

In most cases, therefore, a Type C or Type D light is to be pre¬ 
ferred with a full figure. Only when there is considerable inherent 
contrast and pattern interest in the subject, may Type A or B be 
used. With full length nudes, for example, the photographic interest 
lies in gradation and half-tones, which may he properly rendered 
outdoors only with a Type C or Type D light. (Note the use of a 
Type D light, helped by reflection from the sand, in Figure 71.) 

Use of Reflector 

Reflection is an essential part of the Type D light. Type D is 
simply a contrasty light with the edge taken off of it by reflected 
illumination in the shadow area. Type E is converted to Type D by 
the introduction of reflection. 


73 
















Figure 40. Without reflector. Figure 41. Reflector too near and loo far 

toivard rear of subject. 


Very often, in outdoor portraiture, it is possible to secure a 
Type D light by taking advantage of natural sources of reflection. 
Among these sources may be mentioned the following: 

Large mass of clouds 
Sidewalk 
Wall of building 
Body of water 
Sandy beach 

White shirt or dress of model. 

In planning an outdoor portrait, when the light is contrasty, look 
about and see if there is any such reflecting surface that can he 
utilized. If there is none, it will he necessary, unless you are content 
with a Type E light, to employ an artificial reflector. Most con¬ 
venient is a readily portable, folding reflector of the type described 
in Chapter Two. 

The operation of the reflector is simple. It is easiest when you 
have an assistant to handle the reflector and adjust it as needed. 


74 



Figure 42. Reflector correctly used. 


75 







but it is possible to prop it up with a stick (Figure 38) or lean it 
against a bush. 

A few cautions need to be observed in using an artificial reflector. 
When there is an apparent natural source of reflection there is no 
objection in the reflected light being strong and obvious, but when 
an artificial reflector is used, it must not reveal its presence. Pic- 
torially speaking, the artificial reflector is not supposed to be there. 
Its function is simply to make the shadow area transparent: it must 
not betray itself by glare or brilliant catchlight. 

The position of the reflector is important. It should be placed 
in front of, and not too close to the subject. Figure 39A indicates 
the proper relative position of camera, subject and reflector. Figure 
42 shows the result of this arrangement, Figure 40 being the effect 
without the reflector. In Figure 39B, the reflector is placed too 
close to the subject, and too far to the side, producing the artificial 
looking “hot spot” shown in Figure 41. 

A blue-gray “structure filter” or viewing glass is useful in check¬ 
ing on the effect of reflectors. Excessive reflection, as in Figure 41, 
is not always apparent to the eye, but is readily noted when the 
viewing glass is used. 


v 


76 


Chapter Five 


Backgrounds 


Many things conspire to spoil the work of the maker of outdoor 
portraits: lighting, exposure, depth of field, posing of the subject. 
Of these things, however, perhaps the most immediately apparent 
source of error in outdoor portraits is found in the choice and use 
of backgrounds. Figures 43 and 44 will be recognized as typical 
instances of pictures that would have been fairly good if it had not 
been for faulty backgrounds. 

(For the sake of definition, it should he understood that the 
term “background,” as used in this chapter, is taken to mean all 
parts of the setting of the subject, including even those parts that 
come in front of it.) 

In the work of beginners, such errors usually are the result of 
actual failure to see the background. In their preoccupation with 
the subject, they fail to take any other matters into account. But 
the literal-minded camera is no more preoccupied with the principal 
subject than it is with anything else, and so it turns up all sorts of 
strange things in the background that the photographer has over¬ 
looked completely. 

So the first thing toward improving the backgrounds in your 
outdoor portraiture is to learn to take notice of them, both as they 


77 



Figure 43. A typical bad background. 



Figure 44. Another bad background. 


are in themselves and as they relate themselves to the subject matter. 

But even after getting over this preliminary background-blind¬ 
ness, the worker is still liable to arrive at such unfortunate results as 
those shown in Figures 43 and 44. Advanced amateurs, as we know, 
are often very fussy in selecting backgrounds for their outdoor por¬ 
traits. But, despite their care, unfortunate things happen: a flower¬ 
ing branch seems to sprout weirdly from the girl friend’s ear, and 
what was intended as a portrait of Aunt Emma standing in front 
of the Grand Canyon turns out to be a portrait of the Grand Canyon 
standing behind Aunt Emma. All such errors are the result of not 
giving enough thought to the function of backgrounds and their re¬ 
lationship to the subject matter. 

Three Axioms 

The important facts about the use of backgrounds in outdoor 
portraiture may be summed up in these three axioms. 


78 





I. The background should be subordinate. 

II. The background should be appropriate. 

III. The background should be isolated. 

The truth of the first axiom is, as they say in Euclid, self-evident. 
Since the picture is a portrait, all other parts of it must be sub¬ 
ordinated to the presentation of the subject matter. But the mere 
recognition of this fact is not sufficient to secure proper subordina¬ 
tion of backgrounds. Backgrounds, as we shall presently see, have 
numerous unexpected and subtle ways of calling attention to them¬ 
selves, and we must be prepared to cope with them all. 

The second axiom is perhaps not so immediately self-evident as 
the first one, hut it is equally important. Delicate issues are raised 
in applying it, for appreciation of the “appropriate” involves aes¬ 
thetic discrimination. To some extent, the second axiom is a corollary 
of the first, since a background that is definitely at odds with the 
subject matter becomes thereby unduly conspicuous. 


79 




The third axiom is not apparent at first glance, but it involves 
a basic principle in the organization of the outdoor portrait. The 
background and the subject matter are two separate entities, and 
they must not be permitted to encroach physically on each other. 
The best background for an outdoor portrait is nearly as remote 
and separate in effect as a painted back-drop in a theatre. A useful 
device for simplifying pictorial construction and securing the neces¬ 
sary isolation of the background is the organization of the picture 
into planes . The classic landscape, as exemplified by Claude Lor¬ 
raine, was usually organized on a basis of three planes. An outdoor 
portrait may occasionally be presented in this manner, with the 
principal figure occupying the second plane; hut the safest plan to 
follow, and the one most applicable to our present problem, is that 
of the 18th Century portrait painters, who commonly organized their 
material in two planes only. 

A familiar trick of amateurs is to have the subject sit on or lean 
against some part of the background. (See Figure 45.) This pro¬ 
cedure always yields a had picture because it violates the third axiom 
by failing to preserve the isolation of the background. 

This action of leaning against part of the background is permis¬ 
sible only when (as in the case of the wall in Figure 46) it is the 
basis of the organization of the picture, or when it serves to empha¬ 
size the plane of the subject. 

Let us now look at some of the common violations of these 
axioms as exemplified in concrete practice. 

The Seven Deadly Errors 

There are seven common and deadly errors involving the use of 
backgrounds in outdoor portraiture. These errors result from various 
violations of the three preceding axioms. 

Here are the seven errors: 

1. The confused background. 

2. The contrasty background. 

3. The background violently out of focus. 


80 


Figure 46. 

Wall is here 
basis of organization. 



4. “Traps” in the background. 

5. The background of wrong empathy. 

6. The background that dwarfs the subject. 

7. The background wrongly placed in relationship to head 
or picture space. 

The Confused Background 

The confused background (see Figure 47) violates the first axiom 
because its confusion draws the eye away from the subject matter. 
Attention that should be given to the subject matter is squandered 
in the effort to solve the insignificant complexities in the background. 
Thus, in Figure 47, the eye, which really wants to give its attention 
to the not unattractive center of interest, finds itself compelled 
against its will to explore the equivocal blobs and curlicues that 
surround the figure. (Note also Figures 11 to 14.) In a picture 


81 





Figure 47. Confused background. Figure 48. Logic of background does 

not lessen its confusion. 


with such a background, we witness the triumph of petty annoyances 
over major interest. 

Probably a census would show that, in various modified forms, 
this is the commonest and most frequently encountered of these 
seven deadly errors. A confused background is the most likely 
result of casual carelessness in this matter. The frequency of the 
fault is increased by the fact that the worker often does not notice 
the confusion that appears in the background because he has simply 
sought (and obtained) a logical and appropriate background for the 
subject. For this reason he defends his picture against criticism: 
“How can the background be called confused?” he says. “It’s just 
the setting this subject naturally would appear in.” So he portrays 
a farmer in a farmyard which is filled with various items of farm 
machinery, sundry outhouses, and numerous ducks and chickens. 
The background is undoubtedly appropriate, but it contains so 
much, and is so little organized, that the subject matter is almost 


82 





Figure 49. Contrasty background. Figure 50. A common error: 

background in light, subject 
in shadow. 


overlooked in the confusion. (Figure 48.) 

Note that the objectionable confusion in the confused back¬ 
ground is not a logical confusion, hut it is, in the final analysis, 
purely a matter of formation and design. An unconfused back¬ 
ground is one that resolves itself at the very first glance, into a 
simple pattern of a few readily comprehended lines and masses. 

The Contrasty Background 

The photographic medium employs a scale of half-tone grays. In 
this scale the strongest notes of emphasis are the extremes, near¬ 
black and near-white. These elements of emphasis should he reserved 
for the most important part of the picture. The background should 
contain neither the darkest dark nor the lightest light. 

A picture which places the extremes of contrast in the back¬ 
ground (see Figure 49) violates the first axiom because it is impos¬ 
sible properly to subordinate the background when it contains such 
emphatic elements. 


83 




Excessive contrast in the background may result either from 
lighting or from bad arrangement of the extremes of local tone. The 
latter situation is met with in studio portraits made in front of a 
strongly patterned tapestry. In outdoor portraiture, however, light¬ 
ing is the more common source of trouble. A background consisting 
of sparkling foliage or of broken and sharply modelled planes placed 
close behind the head is apt, under sunlight, to show more contrast 
than is revealed in the subtler modelling of the face. Amateurs 
frequently attempt outdoor portraits in the shade of trees or porch 
without taking thought of the stronger sunlight beyond. This cir¬ 
cumstance produces backgrounds of violent contrast. (Figure 50.) 

Figure 51, which might with justice be entitled “Cherchez la 
Femme,” represents possibly the ultimate in a background that is 
both confused and contrasty. Only by diligent search does one dis¬ 
cover what the picture is all about. 

The best protection against falling into this error is consistent 
use of a dark blue viewing glass or a blue-gray “structure filter.” 
The reduced luminosities seen through the glass reveal excessive 
contrasts much more clearly than the naked eye does. 

Background Violently out of Focus 

Figure 52 shows the third of the errors relating to the use of the 
background in outdoor portraiture. 

Like the two preceding errors, a background violently out of 
focus, as this one is, constitutes a violation of the first axiom. The 
strangely blurred contours create a definite distraction that prevent 
the background from being properly subordinated. The very ambi¬ 
guity of the smears exaggerates their importance: one can’t help 
speculating whether that extraordinary object is a street car or a 
haystack. 

Unlike the other errors, this one results, not from bad selection 
of material, but simply from unskillful handling of the camera. 
There is not enough depth of field in Figure 52. Closing down the 
lens a couple of stops would render the background with sufficient 
sharpness to prevent it from drawing attention to itself. 


84 



Figure 51. Contrast and confusion Figure 52. Background badly out 

completely swamping subject matter. of focus. 



A slight softening of contours in the background is not objec¬ 
tionable, and is sometimes a distinct assistance in securing sub¬ 
ordination. It is only when it is pushed to grotesque extremes that 
the background out of focus becomes a hazard and liability. 

“Traps” in the Background 

In Figure 53 we see yet another sort of faulty background. The 
numerous white patches of sky all serve to catch the eye and distract 
the attention from the subject matter. Being surrounded by dark 
tones, these white areas seem by contrast, even more glaring and 
aggressive than they really are. 

“Traps”* of this sort are particularly liable to be encountered 
when using foliage as a background. Be sure to chose foliage masses 
compact enough to prevent the appearance of patches of sky. Also 
avoid spots of dappled sunlight in the foreground, for they too will 

* For fuller discussion of “traps,” see The Model, page 58. 


85 





Figure 53. Traps in background. Figure 54. Background of wrong 

empathy. 


act as traps. Arches, that usual architectural feature of campus 
photography, are another frequent source of this error. So also are 
trellises and arbours. 

Background of Wrong Empathy 

In Figure 54 we have an example of a background that violates 
the second of the axioms—it is inappropriate to the subject matter 
placed in front of it. 

“Empathy” is a word used by writers on aesthetics to express 
the physical reaction of the beholder to various lines, shapes and 
materials. When a figure is placed in a manifestly wrong environ¬ 
ment, we feel actual physical discomfort at the discrepancy. We 
feel that the setting is on point of doing actual damage to the subject. 
For example, a picture of a girl in a fluffy dress in a setting of 
brambles would undoubtedly make us feel acutely uncomfortable 
because of its had empathy. 


86 



So it is with this picture, Figure 54. The total impression is 
very unpleasant—because of the suggestion that the model has been 
impaled through the neck. 

Other typical examples of bad empathy would be the following: 

1. Informal costume in front of a formal background. (A 
bathing suit in the Astor ballroom, to cite an extreme 
instance.) 

2. An arch in the background that seems to press down on 
the subject’s head. 

3. A twig or branch that looks as though it was about to poke 
the subject in the eye. 

As to means of avoiding bad empathy, it is of course impossible 
to give any adequate formula. A sense of the pictorially appropriate 
is purely a matter of taste—and this fact puts the issue squarely up 
to the individual worker. 

Background that Dwarfs the Subject 

In Figure 43 we see another case of an insubordinate background. 


87 




The principal mass in the background is here so large and imposing 
that it attracts an undue amount of attention. 

The dwarfing of the subject may be occasioned as in Figure 43, 
by some single huge element in the background—a big tree, a cliff, 
a building—or it simply may be due to allotting disproportionate 
picture area to the background, so that it seems to pile up and press 
down heavily on the subject. (Figure 55.) In this picture there is 
also an element of bad empathy owing to the unpleasant suggestion 
of crushing weight. 

Background Wrongly Placed 

A background that is in itself unobjectionable may create a very 
unfortunate effect by being placed in wrong relationship to the 
subject. 

Certain cases of bad empathy (which we have already referred 


88 




“Hilltop” 


William Mortensen 


Figure 57. 


89 





















to) grow out of wrong placement of the background. Things in the 
background that are not unpleasant in themselves may become so by 
being placed in too close proximity to the subject. The shocking 
empathy in Figure 54 would have been avoided with a slight altera¬ 
tion of the relative position of subject and tree. 

A fairly constant element in outdoor portraiture is the skyline. 
The proper adjustment of the skyline is an important phase of the 
background problem. Only when the skyline is uncomplicated and 
very delicately drawn—as sometimes happens on misty days—may 
its placement be safely disregarded. (Figure 57). When strongly 
marked, however, it must be placed with care and consideration. 

With full length figures, the skyline should be placed either very 
high or very low—in order to avoid the criss-cross effect that is 
evident when the skyline intersects the figure about midway. (Figure 
56.) As a general rule, it may be suggested that, with a full length 
figure, the skyline (if strongly defined) should be placed either 
below the knees or above the head. (See Figures 58 and 61.) But 
note that, if the skyline is placed high, a comfortable amount of 
head-room should be allowed. A skyline that is level with the top 
of the head, or barely clears it, gives an oppressive, low-ceilinged 
suggestion. (Figure 43.) 

A somewhat different problem is involved in the placement of 
the skyline with figures of less than full length. Under these con¬ 
ditions, the placing of the skyline is governed by two factors: 

1. Division of the picture space. 

2. The contours of the subject. 

Avoid a skyline that divides the picture in half horizontally. 
Much more pleasing is a position that divides the picture into 
approximately one-tliird and two-tliirds. 

Be careful that the skyline does not relate itself in any un¬ 
expected or ludicrous fashion to the contours of the body. It 
should not seem to attach itself to, or sprout from, angles of the 
figure. Note in Figure 44, for example, how the model seems to 
have an absurdly shaggy coiffure because the tree contours extend 
the contours of the head. Nor should the skyline call attention to 


90 



“Young Fisher folk” W illiam Mortensen 

Figure 58. Use of low skyline. 


91 








Figure 59 . Awkward skyline at Figure 60. Equivocal change in 

shoulder level. direction of skyline contour. 


any of the principal divisions or articulations of the body. In this 
particular it is well to follow the suggestion made in The Model 
governing the length of skirts, sleeves, etc.* A sleeve of precisely 
elbow length, for instance, is very ugly. Much better is a sleeve that 
is just a little longer or a little shorter. In a similar manner, avoid 
placing the skyline so that it intersects the body precisely at the 
shoulders, precisely at the elbow, precisely at the knees. (See Figure 
59.) Like a garment, it should avoid these emphatic points and fall 
inconspicuously somewhere between. 

Note that a strongly sloped skyline suggests that the head placed 
in front of it should be turned to a profile or three-quarter angle 
rather than presented in full-face. Under these conditions, the 
skyline should be high behind the head and low in front, as in 
Figure 62. The opposite arrangement (Figure 63) is ugly. 

One other skyline error should be mentioned. Avoid placing the 

* The Model, page 111. 


92 





“On the Shore * W illiam Mortensen 

Figure 61. Use of high skyline. 


93 




Figure 62. Sloped skyline should 
be low in front. 


Figure 63. This arrangement of 
skyline is ugly. 



figure so that it covers an abrupt change in direction in the skyline, 
as in Figure 60. Such an effect calls undue attention to the back¬ 
ground, for the observer always speculates as to what vagaries the 
skyline indulges in behind the subject’s hack. 

Choice of Locale 

Of all the available locales for outdoor portraiture, the one 
which most consistently steers clear of the Seven Deadly Errors is 
a hill-top. Let us look at the advantages of the hill-top location. 

In the first place, a “jumping off place,” like that shown in 
Figure 64, eliminates in large measure the need of further concern 
about the background. The troublesome middle distance (compare 
Figure 65) is done away with, the material is reduced to two planes, 
and nothing remains hut the foreground and the stylized backdrop 
of distant hills, which are free from distracting contrast or detail. 

In the second place, the hill-top location makes it easy, without 


94 







any mechanical difficulties or apparent striving after effect, to secure 
a low horizon or sky-line. The model simply stands on the brow of 
the hill with the photographer a step or so lower. The low sky-line, 
by bringing the subject’s head against the open sky, automatically 
eliminates many possible sources of error. (Figure 57.) 

When the sky is used for a background, its tone may be readily 
controlled by employing filters. With different filters, flesh tones 
may he shown either as dark against a pale sky (Figure 57) or as 
light against a heavy and dark sky (Figure 37). By this means, a 
considerable range of expression is made available. The dramatic 
quality of some kinds of subject matter may be greatly enhanced, 
for example, by the use of a “G” filter with panchromatic film. 
(Figure 100.) 

A simple sky background has the further advantage that it re¬ 
quires no great depth of field. Unlike other backgrounds, the sky 
does not need to be in focus. Compare Figures 66 and 67. There is 
no noticeable difference between them, though they were made at 


95 





Figure 66. Sky out of focus. Figure 67. Sky in focus. 

Shot at F :4.5. Shot at F:22. 


F:4.5 and F:22 respectively. Thus, with the sky as a background, 
it is possible to work at a considerably wider aperture and take ad¬ 
vantage of the lens’ facilities for speed. And speed is often needed 
in outdoor portraiture—particularly when a brisk wind is moving 
hair or garment. Even when there are clouds in the sky, a wide 
aperture produces no unpleasant lack of sharpness. 

From the point of view of lighting, the hill-top location has 
further advantages. Obviously, good light is here available more 
hours of the day than in any other location. After the light in the 
valley has grown excessively flat and dead, it is still delicately crisp 
on the ridge. Furthermore, the hill-top light is usually better in 
quality and secures good luminosity in the shadows. (See Figure 
57.) It should be noted, however, that, on very gray days, the light 
in the canyon has a little more punch than the light further up, where 
there are no reflecting surfaces. 


96 








Figure 68. “Gall stones,” a common Figure 69. Close up of “gall stone.” 

by-product of foliage background. 


Typical Locations 

Every background presents its own individual problems, of 
course, but there are certain locations so generally met with that 
they may be treated as typical to outdoor portraiture. Each of 
these types offers its own particular difficulties. 

Foliage is a characteristic attribute of the outdoors that is very 
apt to be selected as a background. It seems at first glance a good 
choice, being generalized and not having too much interest in itself. 
Foliage, however, is actually rather difficult material to handle pic- 
torially, and, when unadvisedly used as a background, is almost 
certain to lead one into several of the Deadly Errors. Unless care¬ 
fully chosen, foliage is likely to he both contrasty and confused. 
(See Figure 11.) Foliage offers particular danger of “sky traps” 
(Figure 53), small, attention-holding patches of light tone. If the 
sky traps happen to he out of focus, we have one of the most common 
and offensive of amateur faults. (Figure 68.) These annoying blobs 


97 





“Desert Born” William Mortensen 

Figure 70. Reflection irom ground. Recession improved by low angle . 


98 









or smears of light have been appropriately designated by a former 
pupil of mine as “gall-stones.” (See Figure 69 for a close-up of a 
“gall-stone.”) 

In order to avoid “gall-stones” and other kindred errors result¬ 
ing from the use of a foliage background, choose your foliage masses 
carefully. These should be compact and not spotty in formation, 
lacking openings or traps as well as any too dominant or well- 
marked line or mass. In general, the lighter greens are preferable 
for backgrounds. Foliage should not be placed too close behind the 
head, as this proximity may cause individual leaf forms and twig 
details to dominate over the subject matter. (Figure 11.) The 
foliage should he far enough behind the head so that it may he 
decently defined without aggressive detail. 


99 



Desert stretches of land often recommend themselves for out¬ 
door portraiture. Although there is violent illumination on the 
desert at times, excessive contrast is avoided because the reflection 
from the ground brings luminosity into the shadows. (Figure 70.) 
The weird vegetation of the desert, so often photographed, is usually 
detrimental when introduced into the background of a portrait. 
These strange shapes often suggest the human form, so that the 
real human figure becomes weak and ineffective among these vege¬ 
table gargoyles. Even Hedy Lamarr would run a poor second to a 
joshua tree. 

The flatness of the desert floor is frequently a pictorial disad¬ 
vantage. It offers a gradual, unaccented recession into the distance 
instead of a recession that is simplified into a few broad planes. 
Choice of a low camera angle will sometimes serve to suggest planes 
of distance, and thus stylize the recession. (Figure 70.) 


100 




Figure 73. Brilliant light at ocean provides requisite speed for action shots. 


The seashore is a particularly advantageous setting for outdoor 
portraiture. As a background it is inherently simple and free from 
distracting factors. There are just three primitive elements involved 
—sky, sea and shore—and they form a grateful and appropriate 
backdrop to the human figure. 

A low skyline is readily secured in this setting (Figure 58), and 
is probably the best combination to use for most portraits by the 
sea. This angle requires that the photographer shoot from an un¬ 
dignified sprawl or crouch. A high sky-line as in Figure 59 or 72, 
needs a steeply sloping beach or some other lofty point of vantage, 
such as a rock, to shoot from. The sky-line at the beach is usually 
misty enough so that it does not make an unpleasant horizontal 
division of the picture. 

The light at the seashore is very fast hut free from excessive 
contrast. There is ample reflection from water and sand, which gives 


101 






“77ie Outcasts” William Mortensen 

Figure 74. Background of seacliff. 


luminosity to shadows and renders unnecessary the use of any arti¬ 
ficial reflector. (Figures 71 and 72.) There is always enough light 
to stop the motion of the incessantly restless background. Successful 
action shots may he secured in this brilliant light. (Figure 73.) 

On certain stretches of beach, one may find, by turning his back 
to the ocean, interesting cliff formations that make admirable back¬ 
grounds. (Figure 74.) Against these cliffs one discovers, thanks to 
the brilliant reflection from the water, a very fine light, Type C or 

D. 

It is well, incidentally, before proceeding to a location at the 
beach, to consult a tide table. Otherwise, after collecting models, 
costumes and equipment and driving twenty miles, you may dis¬ 
cover that your carefully selected spot is three feet under water. 


102 




Figure 75. Figure 76. 

Usual confused background of public . . . eliminated by change of angle, 

gardens . . . 


Parks and gardens are often the city-dwellers’ only available 
locations for outdoor portraiture. Unfortunately, even under the 
best of conditions, these situations do not furnish very good back¬ 
grounds. The planting and foliage arrangement are usually spotty 
and prim. And there is, in many cases, a lofty and inappropriate 
sky-line of electric cables, neon signs and office buildings. 

To obtain passable results under these conditions, one needs 
much ingenuity. Foliage is probably the best background that the 
situation affords, but it must be selected carefully in order to avoid 
the common faults of foliage—spottiness, excessive detail, traps and 
“gall-stones.” A close-up against a foliage background is usually the 
best formula to follow in a park. Sometimes the use of a low camera 
angle will eliminate distracting elements in the sky-line. Or, by 
taking advantage of sloping ground or the elevation of a park bench, 
it is possible, by means of a high camera angle, to isolate the subject 


103 



Figure 77. Traps—the itievitable Figure 78. Don’t include too much 

fault of pergolas and trellises. of a building. 


from the surroundings. (Figures 75 and 76.) The edge of a park 
pond will afford the opportunity for this type of picture. 

Trellises and arbours are familiar adjuncts of public parks, but 
they are of no use as backgrounds in outdoor portraiture, for they 
are filled with sky traps and potential “gall-stones.” (Figure 77.) 

Buildings sometimes may furnish good backgrounds for portraits. 
Careful selection is necessary, however. Rather than a large portion 
of the building, shown at a distance, (Figure 78) use some carefully 
chosen fragment placed fairly close behind the head. A doorway, 
a window or a bit of wall makes a good background. (Figure 79.) 
A soft light is essential for this sort of set-up, since without it the 
background will appear spotty and contrasty. A flight of steps offers 
interesting problems in angle shots, and may be employed as a 
background in several different ways. 

Monuments or inscriptions should not he used as backgrounds 
for portraits; they have interest in themselves and create a division 
of attention. 


104 



Figure 79. 


Include only n well unified architectural fragment. 


105 












Chapter Six 


Arrangement of Material 


We come now to the fourth and final phase in the making of 
an outdoor portrait—the selection and arrangement of material 
before the camera. To this ultimate problem, the other three 
(manipulation of the camera, lighting, backgrounds) are merely 
tributary. Camera manipulation, attention to lighting and back¬ 
grounds, are important only as they contribute to the effective pre¬ 
sentation of the subject. Errors in camera manipulation, in lighting 
and in background, may interfere with this effective presentation, 
hut there are many common errors that grow out of the arrangement 
of the subject matter itself. (Note Figures 80 and 81 .) 

Posing the Model 

The principal phase of this problem, and the source of most of 
the errors in arranging the material in outdoor portraiture, is found 
in posing the model. 

In another book,* I have gone with considerable thoroughness 
into the anatomical and aesthetic complications involved in arrang¬ 
ing the human body before the camera. All that was said in The 
Model is valid here, hut some of it applies more particularly to 

* THE MODEL, Camera Craft Pub. Co., $3.00. 


106 




Figure 80. Bad arrangement of 
material. 


Figure 81. Bad arrangement of 
material. 


controlled studio conditions. In working outdoors, certain qualifi¬ 
cations and additions should be made. 

In the first place, note should be taken that the outdoors con¬ 
notes much more freedom, action and angularity than does the care¬ 
ful environment of the indoor studio. Consequently, in an outdoor 
setting there is far more tolerance of those minor imperfections of 
bodily arrangement that I have designated as “secondary errors.”* 
So, such flaws as “traps,” “culs-de-sac,” “hyper-extended elbows,” 
“right-angled knees,” etc., may be freely indulged in. Smiles that, 
in their boisterous and exuberant form, become very annoying in a 
studio portrait, are much more pleasant in an outdoor setting. (Note 
Frontispiece.) Here a smile usually seems honest and spontaneous 
and not something concocted for the occasion. 

On the other hand, there are some poses that will not do outdoors, 
although they are acceptable in an indoor setting. Figure 82, for 
example, might be permitted as a studio “glamour” portrait, but. 

* The Model, page 90, seq. 


107 




seen under the light of the sun, and in natural surroundings, it seems 
ridiculously affected and theatrical. 

Most of the “secondary errors,” I have said, may be permitted 
in posing the figure in an outdoor setting. Not so, however, with the 
“primary errors.” The “primary errors” are faults in arranging the 
human figure that seem to contradict or do violence to its anatomic 
structure.* 

In The Model I have listed about thirty of these primary errors. 
For thorough understanding of the present chapter, reference should 
he made to the full analysis given in this hook. There are, however, 
a few of these errors that should be mentioned here, because they 
are particularly likely to crop up in outdoor portraits. 

1. Split profile. This error appears in three-quarter angles of 
the head, when the tip of the nose seems to coincide with 
the line of the cheek. The head should he adjusted so that 
the tip of the nose clearly projects beyond the cheek line, 
or else definitely falls short of it. 

2. Stumps. This error appears at elbow or knee when the 
forearm or lower part of the leg is so tucked out of sight 
that the limb looks as though it had been amputated at the 
joint. This is a common error and easier to perpetrate than 
you would think. 

3. Arm from nowhere. This is a horrible and grotesque error 
often resulting from too close framing of the subject. The 
observer is shocked by the appearance of an anonymous 
and unattached arm (actually belonging to the model her¬ 
self) that projects into the picture and toys familiarly with 
the model’s hair or dallies with her locket. 

4. Flipper feet. When feet (either hooted or hare) are pointed 
directly at the camera, the foreshortening converts them 
into unpleasant amphibian appendages. 

5. Collapsed abdomen. This fault is more apparent in nude 
pictures, because of the tell-tale wrinkles across the midriff. 
But, even with clothes, the error betrays itself in faulty 

* The Model, page 90. 


108 




Figure 82. Such affectation is excluded Figure 83. Blotchy shadows and 

from outdoor portraiture. butchery by light. 


posture. Note the sack-of-potatoes posture of the child in 
Figure 103. Compare this unpleasant pose with Figure 96, 
in which the whole set-up is governed by the positive and 
firm spine of the model. 

6. Crossed arms. Too casual or careless posing may lead to 
this fault (Figure 80). The cross is a harsh geometric 
formation, quite at variance with the human body, and 
establishes an X-marks-the-spot accent that is irrelevant 
and misleading. 

7. Flattened fanetta. This is the term applied to the flattening 
of the gluteus maximus muscle in a sitting figure. Picto- 
rially, this fault suggests effete softness and gross over¬ 
weight. In posing the model, the fault may be avoided by 
having the weight placed on the “up-stage” buttock (Figure 


109 


96) leaving the pygean curve apparently smooth and un¬ 
interrupted. 

8. Head angle at variance ivith body. Movement of the head 
calls for a balancing or compensating action of the body. 
When this compensation does not take place, there is ob¬ 
vious faulty relationship. Note in Figure 31, how the angle 
of the shoulders compensates for the tilted head. 

9. Butchery by light. This term is applied to lighting that, by 
erratic angle or harsh contrast, does violence to the anat¬ 
omy of the subject. Note, in Figure 25, how half the face 
is lost in shadow and a beautiful model changed into a 
senseless gargoyle. A milder form of this error, though 
very serious pictorially, places the strongest light on the 
part of least interest. For example, the feet may get the 
spotlight, while the face is left in shadow. Other variants 
of this fault put the strong illumination on the back of the 
neck or the ear of the model. Another butchery by light, 
typical of outdoor portraiture, disfigures the face and body 
with blotchy shadows, usually cast by foliage. (Figure 83.) 
Note also, in this connection, Figure 51, in which the back¬ 
ground receives the light, while the model goes into total 
eclipse. 

Coping with the Squint. 

A traditional curse of outdoor photography is the squint, an in¬ 
voluntary protest against bright light. The characteristic expression 
varies in intensity from a slight crinkling of the eyelids to a terrifying 
contortion involving the whole face. (Figure 84.) 

Many of the worst squints have their origin in the old-fashioned 
superstitution (still current in some circles) that an outdoor picture 
is possible only when the subject is exposed to the raw glare of the 
brightest sun. However, some persons will squint even under the 
modified overhead light from an overcast sky. Since squints are 
largely a matter of personal susceptibility, it is possible to make only 
the most generalized suggestions as to methods for avoiding them. 


110 



Figure 84. The ancient curse of Figure 85. Genuine “spontaneity ” is 

outdoor photography. not always pleasing. 


In the first place, it should he noted that, with the right kind of 
subject matter, there is no objection to a slight wrinkling about the 
eyes. This is, in fact, the normal expression of those who live much 
in the open. Even primitive peoples, who might be supposed to be 
inured to the sun, habitually squint a hit when they confront it. 
(Look, for example, at the pictures in any National Geographic.) 
So, with a subject that is primitive in connotation, or is definitely 
an outdoor type, a slight squint is neither inappropriate nor un¬ 
pleasant. 

However, with more idealized pictorial material, such an ex¬ 
pression is too crass and realistic. This kind of material will not, of 
course, be subjected to harsh and violent light—a fact which in itself 
eliminates much of the hazard of squint. As a precaution against 
squint, it is best for the model not to wear dark glasses while on 
location. In this manner the eyes are somewhat accustomed to the 
light. If glasses are worn, the shock of removing them will undoubt- 


lll 




edly induce squint. Note also that, with a little training, a model is 
usually able, by making a conscious effort, to open the eyes wide and 
clear up the squint for a second or two—long enough for the alert 
photographer to make an exposure. 

The Question of “Spontaneity .” 

We have already spoken of a certain quality of posing (in Figure 
82) which, although it is on occasion permissible in the studio, is 
instantly spotted as false and artificial in an outdoor setting. It is 
sometimes said that an outdoor picture should he “spontaneous.” A 
truer statement of the situation would be that an outdoor portrait 
should appear spontaneous. This is far from being a quibble, for 
true spontaneity and apparent spontaneity are quite different things. 
True spontaneity is seldom pleasant: it is, as a rule, either violent 
and uncontrolled (Figure 85) or else merely dull and vapid. 

If the model has seen a few movie stills, it may be that the pal¬ 
pably false pose of Figure 82 is actually more nearly “spontaneous” 
than the direct and unaffected simplicity of Figure 86 or 36. The 
latter “simplicity” is, as a matter of fact, only arrived at through 
many exposures and extensive experimental variations in pose. 

Portraiture by Improvisation. 

This experimental quality should be noted. If you begin to sense 
the stirrings of a brand new idea and a completely different set-up 
from the one you have been working on, don’t hesitate to follow 
this new lead. It is from such leads that the best pictures are derived. 

This does not mean casual and “spontaneous” pot-shooting. Quite 
the contrary. It means careful and considered plans and a sensible 
effort to carry them out. But, from this planned beginning, branch 
out as widely and fantastically as you wish. 

The general procedure may be reasonably compared to improvi¬ 
sation on the piano. Some musicians have amazing fertility in ex¬ 
tempore performance. But they don’t improvise by spontaneously 
pounding the keyboard with their fists. Rather, they make a sensible 
beginning, and in deviating from it, they draw upon their knowledge 
of harmony, thematic development, instrumental technique, etc. In 


112 



Figure 86. 


Effect of spontaneity achieved by careful posing. 


113 

















the same fashion, the photographer’s extemporization must proceed 
by preparation and knowledge, not by random and senseless groping. 

In keeping with this extempore procedure, a certain holiday feel¬ 
ing is essential to good outdoor portraiture. The photographer who 
is capable of enjoying himself will get much better results than the 
dour and serious soul. The model for outdoor portraiture must like¬ 
wise partake of this spirit. She must he a good sport, capable of 
weathering a little hardship for the fun of it. If she proves to he the 
complaining kind—unduly concerned about runs in her stockings, 
freckles on her nose and hugs down her neck—the photographer 
might as well take her home forthwith and start out afresh with 
another model. 

Costume in Outdoor Portraiture. 

Outdoor portraiture does not properly permit the use of formal 
dress or anything fussy or frilly. So plan to avoid those conventional 
shots of Sister in her first party frock standing on the porch steps or 
in front of the lawn shrubbery. The party frock, if you must have 
a picture of it, should be put in front of a plain white wall, preferably 
indoors. A semi-formal afternoon gown may with logic appear in a 
formal garden setting. But neither of these things should appear 
with a completely pastoral background. 

Smartness, of course, is not out of place in an outdoor setting, but 
it must be the right kind of smartness. For conventional portraiture, 
a simple sports outfit is the best. (See Frontispiece.) 

For more complicated pictorial problems, a simple shift (Figure 
57), or a graceful and uncomplicated longer garment of no particular 
period or nation (Figure 36), is the best basis for photographically 
effective costume. These garments should be oyster-colored or some 
tone just off-wliite. These basic garments are capable of infinite 
variation by the addition of a few simple “elements”—shawls, vari¬ 
colored scarves, pieces of cotton print. These elements may be used 
to add accents of detail and to construct headdresses, neckpieces, 
bodices, etc.* 

* For further data on the use of “costume elements” see The Model, Part I, Chapter Seven, 


114 




Figure 87. Ortho film emphasizes Figure 88. Use of body make up. 

make up. 


The use of “elements” will effectively simplify the problem of 
costume in outdoor portraiture. It is not easy to carry a complicated 
and literal costume on a field trip and such a costume rarely proves 
worth the trouble when you get it to your destination. A literal 
costume is what it is and nothing more, but the “elements” are a 
challenge to one’s ingenuity and a stimulus to the imagination. 

Make-Up 

Make-up outdoors presents a rather different problem than in 
the studio. Pictorial exaggerations may he indulged in under arti¬ 
ficial light that would look merely foolish under the searching light 
of the sun. Make-up for outdoor portraiture must be simple and 
direct. Flamboyant or sophisticated make-up, that might be ex¬ 
tremely effective in the studio, is just as much out of place in an out¬ 
door setting as a backless evening gown. 


115 


Avoid, therefore, for outdoor portraiture, all fancy eyebrows, 
exotic eye-shadow and over-imaginative revamping of lip contours. 
Keep to simple “straight” make-up emphasizing lips, brows and 
possibly eyes—but not more heavily than on a good street make-up. 

The problem is complicated by the differing requirements of 
ortho and pan film. Ortho is strongly sensitive on the green side and 
weak on the red. Lip rouge, therefore, must not be used in con- 
junction with the ortho film, for with it the red fails to register and 
the lips look like twin licorice drops (Figure 87). The normal color 
of the lips is darkened by ortho so that it looks about like average 
make-up. Brown eyebrow pencil is also darkened by the ortho 
rendering, and must he applied with corresponding restraint. 

Pan film, on the other hand, is very sensitive on the red side. Use 
of it results in weak rendering of the lips, which appear almost as 
light as the rest of the flesh. Even with normal lip stick, there is not 
quite enough tone. So, with a pictorial subject such as (Figure 36), 
it is preferable, when pan film is employed, for the model to use the 
special “Panchromatic rouge.” (Max Factor No. 7 for blonds, No. 
8 for brunettes.) 

An extremely white skin is inappropriate in an outdoor setting. 
A nude figure that is too white looks merely casually naked. To 
correct this condition, two methods are possible: (1) a two week’s 
course in sunbaths for the model, or (2) the use of some sort of body 
make-up. The first method is not always practicable, although a 
well-tanned nude figure is beautifully effective. Until recently, the 
second method was very unsatisfactory. Old types of body make-up 
spoiled the photographic quality of the skin, giving it a flat, chalky 
appearance, devoid of sheen and gradation. However, recent investi¬ 
gation—instigated no doubt by the motion picture industry—has 
produced a new type of body make-up* that is free from chalkiness 
and adds a soft sheen to the skin. It is easily applied and is very 
effective with nude figures. (Note its use in Figure 88.) It does not 
rub off or smudge but is readily removed with warm water and soap. 

No body make-up that I know of, however, is able satisfactorily 

* Max Factor’s “Pan-Cake Make Up.” Available in a variety of shades, it mav be used for both 
face and body. It is prepared in a flat, cake form, as its name indicates, and is applied with a wet 
sponge. 


116 




Figure 89. Figure as part of general 
decorative scheme. 


Figure 90. Model as center of interest. 


to obliterate bathing-suit marks. No matter how thickly it is applied, 
the marks will still show through. When so disfigured, a model can 
repair the damage only by a lengthy period of bleaching or by a 
briefer regimen of sun baths. 

Emphasis. 

In photographing the human figure in a natural setting, there 
are two elements which strive for our attention. These elements are, 
of course: 

1. The human figure. 

2. The setting. 

Both of these things are intrinsically of great interest to us—the 
world we live in and the people we live with. Combining these two 
elements properly is a delicate problem. Since both elements are so 
interesting, they may be used together in only two ways: 

1. By reducing the human figure to a decorative element in 
the setting. 


117 









2. By reducing the setting to a merely incidental back-drop 
for the character or personality of the model. 

The first method has been used in Figure 89. Here the model 
is simply a part of the general decorative scheme. He is technically 
the center of interest, it is true, but is unmistakably subordinated 
to the plan of the whole. This also is the treatment in Figure 91. 

In Figure 90 we see an example of the second sort of combination. 
The personality of the model is the engrossing interest, and the set¬ 
ting exists only as something against which the model may be dis¬ 
played to good advantage. 

Any effort to balance the two interests by giving an even break 
to both model and setting is certain to turn out badly. This is the 
basic trouble with Figure 93. The setting here is made just im¬ 
portant enough to keep the model from predominating, and the 
model is given just enough emphasis to keep us from enjoying the 
setting. The beholder cannot make up his mind between the model 
and the setting, and so winds up by being annoyed with both of 
them. 

This equivocal condition is a very frequent fault in record pic¬ 
tures. With Aunt Emily and the Grand Canyon before him, the 
photographer tries to do justice to both in the same picture. It can’t 
be done. Either Aunt Emily must gracefully subordinate herself 
to the grandeurs of nature, in the manner of Figure 91, or else the 
landscape must be summarily treated, as in Figure 90, in order to 
give Aunt Emily a chance. 

It is well to recall in this connection the suggestions that I have 
made elsewhere* as to methods for emphasizing or subordinating 
the figure in the landscape. 

The principal methods are nine in number. 

1. Lighting 

2. Position 

3. Size 

4. Relative contrast 

* The Model, page 186. 


118 




Figure 91. 


119 

























5. Inherent contrast 

6. Amount of detail 

7. Angle of face 

8. Direction of movement 

9. Active or passive quality 

1. Placing the figure in the brightest light emphasizes it. Placing 
it in the shadow subordinates it. 

2. The figure is more emphatic near the center of the picture 
than at the edges. 

3. The figure becomes more important as its size increases. 

4. A figure of a tone contrary to the background (light against 
dark, or dark against light) is more emphatic than one of a similar 
tone (dark against dark, or light against light). 

5. A wide range of contrast within the figure makes it more 
emphatic. A short range of contrast subordinates it. 

6. Increasing the amount of detail in the face or figure makes it 
more emphatic. 

7. When the face is turned toward the observer, the figure is 
most emphatic. Turning the face to one side reduces the emphasis. 

8. An active figure is emphatic and attention-catching. A passive 
figure is more readily subordinated. 

9. Implied movement toward the camera is emphatic because the 
figure seems about to step out of its setting. The contrary movement 
subordinates the figure, which then seems to recede into the setting. 

To be completely effective, several of these methods of emphasis 
should be used concurrently. Mixing emphasis and subordination 
leads again to uncertainty and equivocation. It is bad, for example, 
when the inherent contrast of the figure emphasizes it, and at the 
same time its size and direction of movement suggest that it is meant 
to be subordinated. 

So, in this matter of emphasis, note two important rules: 

1. Determine clearly whether you want the figure emphatic 
or subordinate. 

2. Having decided, emphasize it or subordinate it unmistak¬ 
ably. 


120 



Figure 92. Unsuccessful attempt at Figure 93. Figure made dominant by 

compromise between figure and setting. movement toward camera. 


Angles. 

Angle shots, as I pointed out in an earlier chapter, are, strictly 
speaking, a phase of camera manipulation. But, because angle shots 
are closely related to the arrangement of material and the composi¬ 
tion of pictures, consideration of angles has been delayed to this 
point. 

The use of angles marked a new and interesting departure in 
photography. It seems probable that we first became aware of the 
advantage and effectiveness of angle shots in certain motion pictures 
(The Cabinet of Doctor Caligari , The Golem , The Last Laugh, and 
others) that came out of Germany soon after the close of the last 
war. The American movie makers were quick to take the hint, and 
soon we had a surfeit of shots between the legs of the actors, shots 
through the backs of chairs, shots through the key-hole, and shots 
down the stairs. Familiar things took on slightly nightmarish aspects 
when seen in bird’s eye or frog’s eye views. 


121 










Figure 94. Miscellaneous background. 


The users of the still camera in turn seized eagerly upon the 
device of angles, not only for its novelty, but also because it offered 
a relief from a very common and insidious fault of photographic 
rendering—a sort of stiff and supercilious objectivity. By the use 
of the angle shot, the camera gets into the setting, as it were, instead 
of merely standing to one side and looking at it. This participation 
(if we may call it that) of the camera gives, at best, increased 
intimacy and enhanced dramatic quality. At worst, it gives senseless 
distortion and irrelevant exaggeration to material that does not call 
for such treatment. 

Even more than in motion pictures, we have seen in still photog¬ 
raphy an extensive over-use and mis-use of the angle shot. We have 
gone in for angles for angles’ sake and have substituted sensational¬ 
ism for good sense and a mere kick in the pants for sound composi- 


122 



Figure 95. Background simplified by high angle. 


tion. But, despite all blatant abuses, angles are too valuable and 
interesting a device to overlook—if only we can learn to exercise a 
little sense and restraint in using them. 

In outdoor portraiture, in particular, angles are frequently an 
appropriate and useful device. The outdoors generally suggests this 
sort of boldness of treatment, and rough terrain gives a logical basis 
for angle shots. If a miniature camera is used, angles are felt to be 
additionally appropriate, for the minicam is, of course, particularly 
facile in dealing with angles. 

There is further occasion for employing angle shots out of doors 
when, as in Figures 94, 95 and 96, a low or high camera is needed 
to exclude undesirable material from the background. 

Even in outdoor portraiture, however, there is danger of going 


123 



Figure 96. Background simplified by Figure 97. Illogical emphasis on 

low angle. angle. 


to unpleasant and illogical extremes in the use of angles. When, as 
in Figure 97, we are principally aware of the angle itself rather than 
the subject matter, the use of the angle defeats its own intention— 
which was to give the subject matter effective presentation. A more 
restrained and reasonable use of angle with the same subject is shown 
in Figure 96. 

In such cases as Figures 98 and 99, in which the low angle is 
employed merely as a means of eliminating an undesirable back¬ 
ground, it is frequently advisable to have the model lean slightly 
toward the camera. This procedure prevents excessive distortion 
and foreshortening. 

The basic reason for the angle shot is enhanced dramatic quality. 
This implies the use of the human element. Without it, angles seem 
vacuous and unmotivated: this is the case with most of the angle shots 


124 



Figure 98. Figure 99. 

Undesirable background ... ... eliminated by angle. Avoidance 

of distortion. 


of mere architecture, in which distortion is used only for distortion’s 
sake. Without the human element, the momentary impression of 
drama is found to be empty and unsatisfying, and eventually a little 
ridiculous—like a glowering Hallowe’en mask with nothing behind it. 

The most dramatically significant part of the human body is, of 
course, the face. So it is usually best to restrict the use of angles to 
choke shots of the head. Half-length figures may occasionally he 
used, hut the inclusion of torso and limbs in angle shots generally 
leads to ugly and dramatically irrelevant distortions. 

If the extreme emphasis of angle is used, care must be taken that 
the other elements are of a nature that conform to the treatment. 
Note, in particular, two things: (1) the general import of the subject 
matter, and (2) the lighting. It is necessary that the subject matter 
itself should suggest the use of angles. It should be rugged and 


125 





rough-hewn and rather monumental in its conformation. (Figure 
100.) Softness and delicacy have no place here. This limits the 
subject matter (for extreme angles) to masculine faces and to those 
feminine faces that are mature and boldly modelled. It is had taste 
to employ an emphatic angle shot on a child or a jeune fille in an 
organdy dress. 

The lighting also must be conformable to the use of angles. A 
flat or soft light does not carry enough hint of drama to justify an 
angle shot. A hold and contrasty lighting is needed. The Type A 
and Type B lights will not permit angles to be used. In general, 
employ angles only when the light is Type D or Type E. Type C is a 
border-line case and may, with the proper subject matter, admit of 
a very restrained use of angles. 


126 






Chapter Seven 


Four Common Problems 


There are certain predicaments of the maker of outdoor portraits 
that are so common that they are almost standardized. In this 
chapter we will consider four of the commonest of these. Everyone 
who has owned a camera has had at one time or another to take an 
outdoor picture of (1) a child, (2) a family group, (3) an elderly 
person, and (4) a pet animal. If he has no child, family, grandfather 
or pet of his own, he has those of other people thrust upon him. 

Despite the frequency, not to say ubiquity, of these four prob¬ 
lems, they are all hard to cope with. They all involve subject matter 
with sentimental over-tones, subject matter to which one would like 
to give the best rendering possible. But, all too often, they turn out 
something along the lines of Figures 101, 102, 103, or 104. Some¬ 
times they are a little better than these, sometimes a little worse, 
but nine times out of ten, they are disappointing. 

Let us consider briefly what can be done about improving our 
percentage in dealing with these common problems. 

The Child 

The difficulties encbuntered in taking an outdoor portrait of a 
child are numerous and harassing. Frequently, adoring relatives 


127 



Figure 101. A bad version of Figure 102. Another, 

conventional material. 


will congregate on the sidelines. If the child is very young, they will 
make goo-goo noises at it, waggle their hands, wave handkerchiefs, 
and perform other alarming and demoralizing acts. If the child is a 
little older, the relatives will address themselves more directly with 
helpful comments such as “Susie, pull down your dress,” or “Johnnie, 
stop squinting.” The child gets restless and wriggles exuberantly. 
In order to stop his movement, you move him into brighter sunlight— 
whereupon he squints horribly. Finally the child, harried and ner¬ 
vous, balks utterly and either turns his back on you in a gesture of 
passive resistance or else goes into a tantrum and screams his de¬ 
fiance of the universe and all creatures in it—particularly photog¬ 
raphers. 

Now, it may seem that I have painted an unduly black and 
exaggerated picture of the problem of photographing a child. As a 
matter of fact, no picture is too black that accurately represents the 
potentialities of this problem. You may expect the worst—and will 


128 






Figure 103. Another. 


probably encounter it. A clear vision of the probable hazards to be 
met is the first requisite toward getting a good child portrait. And 
the second requisite is patience to deal with these hazards. The third 
and fourth requisites are additional portions of patience. 

The first thing to do is to sternly banish from the scene all the 
well-meaning and unhelpful relatives. Some one older person to 
whom the child is accustomed may be permitted to remain if it seems 
best. Next, remove from sight all cats and dogs and other family pets. 

Familiar and informal surroundings are best for photographing 
a child; so, if light conditions permit, the backyard is usually to be 
preferred to the front. In these surroundings, let the child do pretty 
well as he chooses. At all events, keep the amount of direction down 
to the minimum. A new plaything may serve to divert him from his 


129 


curiosity or apprehensions concerning the funny man with the little 
black box. 

Plenty of speed in shooting is generally needed. Good child 
pictures are seldom posed, but are snatched in mid-flight. So try to 
get an abundance of light without excessive contrast. Take advan¬ 
tage, if possible, of the reflection from the side of the house or garage. 
A reflector such as that described in Chapter One is apt to prove too 
strange and distracting a gadget to use with a child. Further build 
up your speed by using a high-speed film (Weston 64, or there¬ 
abouts). 

This increase in speed is needed not only to cope with the move¬ 
ment of the subject but also to secure decent depth of field under the 
given conditions. Never try to photograph a child with the lens wide 
open, or nearly so. Not only is the background thrown badly out 
of focus by this procedure, but the subject also, by its slightest move¬ 
ment, is itself put out of focus. Choose a light and film speed that 
will permit you to shoot at one-liundredth of a second at not less than 
F :8. This aperture will give sufficient depth of field to allow for 
plenty of displacement of the subject from the theoretical plane of 
focus. 

Naturally, in working with such mobile subject matter, you want 
to he relieved of as many mechanical distractions as possible. One 
of these mechanical distractions is the focusing adjustment. If you 
changed your focus every time the child changed his position, you 
would probably never get around to taking any pictures. It is much 
simpler to work on a basis of fixed range. Choose a distance that 
yields an image about the size that you want. Focus on this distance 
and don’t change the focus during the sitting. Close down to F :8. 
When the child moves, move along with him, keeping about the same 
distance. At F:8, any slight inaccuracy in distance will not he appar¬ 
ent, particularly with a miniature camera. 

A restrained use of angle will often he found advantageous in 
photographing a child in a backyard locale. Shooting downward 
toward the lawn or upward toward the sky, it is possible to eliminate 
many crass or distracting details. (Figures 105 or 106.) 


130 



Try to get the child in as nearly ordinary and every-day clothes 
as possible. With many mothers, the presence of a camera is apt to 
call forth fresh and starchy clothes, together with certain ceremonies 
involving washrag, brush and comb. These proceedings usually result 
in a very disgruntled, suspicious and self-conscious subject being 
delivered to the photographer. 

The mortality rate in pictures of children is high. To be reason¬ 
ably certain of passable results, a huge number of exposures must 
be made. In order to be sure of these shots, vary the exposure times 
widely (to at least double and one-half the indicated “correct” ex¬ 
posure), but don't vary the F: number or focus. 

Obviously, a miniature camera is best for this job. A larger 
camera, encumbered with tripod and slow in operation, is definitely 
out of its element. The small camera is quick and facile in adapting 
itself to sudden changes in set-up, and allows a multiplicity of ex- 


131 




Figure 105. Use of high angle with 
child. 


Figure 106. Use of low angle ivith 
child. 


posures that would be financially ruinous with a larger instrument. 
The Family Group 

There seems to he something about the combination of Sunday 
afternoon and a camera that calls forth the family group picture. 

The conventional family group picture as a rule embodies an 
unusually large selection of photographic and pictorial errors— 
jumbled and contrasty backgrounds, harsh unflattering light, and 
an arrangement that suggests either military regimentation (Figure 
109) or mob violence (Figure 103). Such pictures have little value 
aside from acting as a memorandum that such-and-such people were 
together in such-and-such a place in such-and-such a time. To im¬ 
prove this sort of picture, take note of the following points. 

(1) Give a little more thought to the picture itself. In most cases, 
the procedure leading up to picture-taking is something like this: 
“Isn’t it wonderful that we are all here together? Let’s take a picture 
of us! Everybody get over here in the sun! Come on, Isabel, Henry’s 


132 







133 


Figure 107. 









going to take a picture! Line up now. That’s right. Look this way, 
Uncle John. Hold it.” And so another family group is given to the 
world. 

The next time this happens, and you are put on the spot to take 
the picture, stall for a bit and consider the situation before you start 
to work. Avoidance of a few obvious hut prevalent errors will un¬ 
questionably improve the quality of the pictures. 

(2) Give due consideration to the background. In general, fol¬ 

low the principles indicated in Chapter Five, but take note of certain 
typical flaws of pictures of this sort. Steer clear, in particular, of 
trellises, front steps, porches and corners of the garage. If some 
of these things need to he present, make a definite effort to fit them 
into the pictorial scheme. • 

(3) Avoid the customary flaw of family groups—contrasty light. 
Choose, if possible, a situation that provides for reflection from 
sidewalk or side of the house. A light of the Type B or C quality 
(see Chapter Four) is to he preferred in photographing groups, since 
it tends, as nearly as possible, to treat all faces alike and to give a 
fairly even break to all angles of the head. 

(4) I have mentioned the instinct for tidiness that often induces 
a family group to line up in a neat row, or—if the group is large— 
in two neat rows. The impulse is commendable—for there must he 
organization in a group—but the result is lamentable (Figure 109). 
Only with a highly stylized background can such a stiff, pseudo¬ 
military arrangement he made pleasing. The outdoor background 
usually suggests a much looser and more accidental-seeming arrange¬ 
ment (hut not the complete disarray of Figure 103). 

Try to organize your group around some single individual, with 
all the others subordinated in some degree to this one. The military 
solution of the organization problem makes all the units equal, like 
so many teeth in a cog-wheel. Much more dramatic and pictorially 
arresting is an arrangement that has some single point of greatest 
interest. 

We have already noted (in Chapter Six) the nine methods by 


134 



Figure 108. 


135 













Figure 109. 

Unfortunate tidiness of 
arrangement. 


which elements in a picture may be made emphatic or subordinate: 

(1) Lighting 

(2) Position 

(3) Size 

(4) Relative contrast 

(5) Inherent contrast 

(6) Amount of detail 

(7) Angle of face 

(8) Active or passive qualities 

(9) Direction of movement 

Theoretically, at least, these methods are all applicable to the 
organization and determination of emphasis in a group picture. 
Most important in this connection are: 

Position 


136 



Figure 110. Improved arrangement of group. Emphasis on child. 


Size 

Inherent contrast 

Angle of face 

Active or passive qualities 

To these methods should be added the emphasis given by the 
direction of the attention within the group. Our attention goes along 
with their attention. If the rest of the group seems to look at or listen 
to one member, that person is thereby made emphatic and the group 
is psychologically organized around him. The direction of the eyes 
is also important in determining emphasis. When a person looks 
directly at the camera, he challenges attention. At the same time, the 
person who looks to one side, or looks down, is subordinated by his 
action. Note also that one of the oldest forms for organizing a picture 


137 



—and one that is still useful—is the pyramid. The pyramidal forma¬ 
tion may often be employed in organizing a group picture. 

In group pictures, however-—particularly in group pictures out¬ 
doors—too obviously studied arrangement is unpleasant. We resent 
arrangement when it becomes more important than the group itself. 

To secure unified arrangement without apparent loss of spon¬ 
taneity, proceed somewhat as follows: First, select the person around 
whom the group is to be organized. Usually, in every family group, 
there will be one person that logically suggests himself for this dis¬ 
tinction. It may be the oldest, Great-Uncle William; it may be the 
latest grandchild; or it may be a newcomer, Cousin Mamie from 
Weetunkit, who is visiting over the weekend. At any rate, having 
chosen your principal character, take some care in placing or posing 
him—or her, as the case may be. Then let the others group them¬ 
selves more or less as they choose around your central figure.* 
Encourage a certain amount of conversational give-and-take among 
the group, watching them carefully meanwhile. Whenever the set-up 
looks good, say 4 TIold it!” and make an exposure. (Figure 110.) 
Switch your people around freely, without substantially altering the 
position of your central figure. Take plenty of exposures of all vari¬ 
ants. Only by being prodigal of film can you be sure of a reasonably 
good picture. 

The Elderly Person 

The photographer will find that, in photographing an elderly 
person, he will need to shift his whole procedure and method into 
the more deliberate tempo of old age. There is no need now of 
catching the fugitive fact on the wing, as there is with children. 
Rather, the photographer should relax along with his subject— 
using slow emulsions, longer exposures and fewer of them. A larger 
camera may he used with profit. 

Spontaneity is not to he sought in pictures of old people. A 
certain formality and passivity are felt to he appropriate. More con- 

* It is not always within the photographer’s province to control the number in the group. But it 
should be noted that, for small groups, odd numbers lend themselves much more readily to arrange¬ 
ment than do even numbers. That is, three or five is to be preferred to two <»r four. Above five, the 
oddness or evenness of the number makes little difference. 


138 




sidered care and deliberation may be given to the arrangement of 
material. 

Under these conditions, there is really no excuse for a bad back¬ 
ground. (Figure 104.) Good for this purpose is a plain wall without 
too much detail. (Figure 111.) Also appropriate is a dark, unpat¬ 
terned mass of foliage. Or, if these are not available, choose a low 
angle and get the head against the sky. 

Unless your subject is a very rugged type, and you want to stress 
the fact, don’t use a contrasty light with old people. A Type C light 
is preferable, giving a well-modeled presentation, without unflatter¬ 
ing emphasis on wrinkles, depressions and other tokens of age. 

Quite in keeping with this deliberate and considered sort of por¬ 
traiture is the use of characteristic “hand properties” or attributes. 
Small objects, such as a pair of spectacles held in the hand, a news¬ 
paper, a pair of pruning shears, a pipe, or a piece of knitting, give 


139 









an added note of interest and help to establish verisimilitude and 
characterization hy suggesting a favorite occupation or pastime. 

Pets 

We have here a problem quite analogous to that of photographing 
small children. Like the children, pets are disturbed by the presence 
of too many spectators. Like children, too, is their intolerance of any 
effort to hurry them up or to make them do things they don’t want 
to do. 

So, the general procedure with pets is much the same as that we 
have described in the preceding section on making pictures of 
children. Choose some quiet and secluded spot in which the animal 
feels at home. Other than the photographer, not more than one 
person should be present, someone who is familiar to the animal and 
can reassure it in case it grows suspicious of the proceedings. 


140 







Figure 113. 


141 













Let this person work the animal, putting it through its tricks and 
holding its attention while you take an abundance of exposures. 
(Figure 112.) As with children, it is best to use the fixed range 
system, thus obviating the need of incessant refocusing. Speed is 
an essential part of the procedure, so use fast film and all the light 
possible. 

In photographing cats—a very tough job, by the way—a useful 
device is a small table or platform covered with a white cloth (unless 
your cat happens to be white, in which case cover the table with a 
dark cloth). Set your lens so that the depth of field corresponds to 
the width of the table. When you are ready, have your assistant plop 
the cat onto the table. By the time the cat has recovered from its 
surprise and made up its mind what to do about it, you will have 
had time to get in several exposures. (Figure 113.) I have had much 
better luck in photographing cats outdoors than in the studio. In¬ 
doors, the strange proceedings and brilliant lights put them into such 
a panic that a picture is practically impossible. 


142 


W illiam Mortensen offers a full curriculum of indi¬ 
vidual instruction in liis distinctive technique which 
is of especial interest to advanced amateurs and pro¬ 
fessional photographers. The many beginners who also study 
with him are spared bewilderment and loss of time by the 
simplified, logical methods and procedures of the Mortensen 
School. More than six hundred students in the past ten years 
have taken these courses, which cover all branches of Pic¬ 
torial and Portrait Photography, with particular emphasis 
on the Miniature Negative. They include the special processes 
of Bromoil, Color and Paper Negative with advanced treat¬ 
ment of Character, Dramatic and Landscape Photography. 

The student receives his training through demonstrations, 
supervised practice, and criticism of assignments, covering all 
points in the System. 

A large gallery of salon prints, including the work of both 
Mr. Mortensen and many of his distinguished students, pro¬ 
vides inspiration and opportunity for study. For further 
information, you are invited to call at the Studios, or to 
address— 

William Mortensen, Laguna Beach , California. 









































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































